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1 Introduction1

1.1 Preliminary remarks1

1.2 Some legal basics4

1.2.1 Sources of international law4

1.2.2 How international law changes7

1.2.3 The legal framework as an interconnected whole9

1.3 Structure of the book10

1.4 Overview of chapters10

PART ONE17

2 'Terrorism' in international law17

2.1 Developments towards a comprehensive definition of international terrorism18

2.1.1 Pre-September 11: historical developments18

2.1.2 Post September 11: a global convention?20

2.1.3 Specific international conventions23

2.1.4 Terrorism in armed conflict25

2.1.5 Regional conventions26

2.1.6 National measures30

2.2 Do we know it when we see it? Defining terrorism and customary law31

2.2.1 Identifying elements of a definition of terrorism from international instruments32

2.2.2 Other international practice: General Assembly, Security Council and criminal tribunals37

2.2.3 Meeting the legality threshold: preliminary conclusions on customary international law?40

2.3 Filling the gap? Terrorism and other international legal norms41

2.4 Conclusion44

3International responsibility and terrorism47

3.1 State responsibility in international law48

3.1.1 Responsibility of a state for acts of terrorism48

3.1.2 Responsibility for breach of obligations in the fight against terrorism55

3.1.3 Consequences of international responsibility for acts of terrorism or for breach of obligations relating to the fight against terrorism58

3.2 Responsibility of non-state actors in international law61

3.2.1 Criminal law62

3.2.2 International humanitarian law63

3.2.3 Human rights law?64

3.3 Conclusion69

PART TWO73

4 Criminal justice73

4A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK73

4A.1 Crimes, principles of criminal law and jurisdiction76

4A.1.1 Crimes under international and national law76

4A.1.2 Relevant principles of criminal law93

4A.1.3 Jurisdiction to prosecute99

4A.2 Implementing justice: international cooperation and enforcement106

4A.2.1 Extradition107

4A.2.2 Mutual assistance114

4A.2.3 Cooperation and the Security Council116

4B CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE POST SEPTEMBER 11117

4B.1 Prosecutions in practice post 9/11119

4B.1.1 Paucity of prosecutions119

4B.1.2 International v. national models of justice post 9/11124

4B.2 Developments in law and practice on cooperation131

4B.2.1 International standards and procedures131

4B.2.2 Streamlining the extradition process? Developments in extradition procedure134

4B.2.3 Inter-state cooperation in practice post 9/11138

4B.3 Conclusion142

5 Peaceful resolution of disputes and use of force144

5A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK144

5A.1 The obligation to resolve international disputes by peaceful means144

5A.2 The use of force in international law: general rule and exceptions146

5A.2.1 Self defence149

5A.2.2 Security Council: maintenance of international peace and security168

5A.3 Other justifications for the use of force?178

5A.3.1 Humanitarian intervention179

5A.3.2 Pro-democratic intervention183

5A.3.3 Self help: breakdown in international enforcement?184

5B THE USE OF FORCE POST SEPTEMBER 11186

5B.1 Afghanistan186

5B.1.1 Key questions arising188

5B.2 Iraq197

5B.2.1 Key questions arising199

5B.3 United States National Security Strategy209

5B.3.1 Expanding self defence?209

5B.3.2 Internationalism, unilateralism or exceptionalism?211

5B.4 Conclusion212

PART THREE217

6 International humanitarian law217

6A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK217

6A.1 When and where IHL applies218

6A.1.1 Armed conflict: international or non-international218

6A.1.2 Temporal scope of IHL222

6A.1.3 Territorial scope of IHL223

6A.2 Applicable law223

6A.3 Specific aspects of IHL228

6A.3.1 Targeting: the principle of distinction and proportionality228

6A.3.2 Methods and means of warfare: unnecessary suffering236

6A.3.3 Humanitarian protections239

6A.3.4 Occupiers' obligations244

6A.3.5 Responsibility and ensuring compliance under IHL245

6BINTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE 'WAR ON TERROR'249

6B.1 Armed conflicts since 9/11250

6B.1.1 Armed conflict and 'terrorist groups of global reach'250

6B.1.2 The Afghan conflict, its nature, beginning and end255

6B.1.3 The conflict in Iraq and obligations of occupying forces258

6B.2 The Afghan conflict and particular issues of IHL compliance259

6B.2.1 Targeting259

6B.2.2 Methods and means: cluster bombs in Afghanistan264

6B.2.3 Humanitarian protection of prisoners: executions,torture and inhumane treatment266

6B.2.4 Transparency, inquiry and onus of proof?270

6B.3 Conclusion271

7 International human rights law274

7A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK274

7A.1 Sources and mechanisms of international human rights law275

7A.2 Scope of application of human rights obligations282

7A.2.1 Territorial scope of human rights obligations-'the jurisdiction question'282

7A.2.2 Personal scope of human rights obligations: irrelevance of nationality289

7A.3BHuman rights in crisis or emergency: accommodating security imperatives290

7A.3.1 Lawful limitations: treaty 'claw back' clauses291

7A.3.2 Temporary suspension: derogation clauses292

7A.3.3 Customary law and emergency297

7A.3.4 Harmony in conflict? The relationship between IHL and human rights law298

7A.4 Human rights obligations and terrorism301

7A.4.1 Protecting human security: positive human rights obligations301

7A.4.2 State responsibility and human rights violations305

7A.4.3 Specific rights protected and counter-terrorism307

7A.5 Conclusion331

7B HUMAN RIGHTS AND SECURITY POST SEPTEMBER 11332

7B.1 Executing the 'war on terror' extra-territorially332

7B.1.1 Arrest and detention of prisoners abroad?333

7B.1.2 Aerial bombardment in Afghanistan or Iraq?334

7B.1.3 Targeted killings?336

7B.1.4 Clarifying and enforcing extra-territorial human rights law?337

7B.2 The'war'and human rights339

7B.2.1 The Yemen attack: armed conflict or assassination?340

7B.3 Derogation and emergency post 9/11344

7B.3.1 An emergency threatening the life of the nation?345

7B.3.2 A valid process of derogation?346

7B.3.3 Linkage between measures taken and the emergency?347

7B.4 'Terrorism' and the legality principle348

7B.4.1 Terrorism, criminal responsibility and nullum crimen sine lege350

7B.4.2 Terrorism, penalties and nulla poena sine lege352

7B.5 Torture and inhuman treatment: Abu Ghraib and beyond353

7B.6 Indefinite detention355

7B.7 Asylum and refugee exclusion357

7B.8 Cooperation in criminal matters and human rights post 9/11358

7B.9 'Proscribing dissent' - expression, association, assembly364

7B.10 Profiling, protecting and anti-discrimination366

7B.11 The role of the judiciary as guardian of human rights post 9/11?368

7B.11.1 'Listing' proscribed organisations368

7B.11.2 International 'cooperation': undermining the judicial function370

7B.11.3 Independence and impartiality impaired: 'special' courts370

7B.12 Accountability371

7B.13 Conclusion373

8Case study-Guantanamo Bay detentions under international human rights and humanitarian law379

8A GUANTANAMO BAY AND ITS DETAINEES: THE BASIC FACTS380

8A.1.1 Treatment of detainees in Guantanamo Bay382

8A.1.2 Seeking justice in US and other courts385

8A.1.3 Overview of military procedures governing detention387

8A.1.4 Trial by military commission388

8B APPLICATION OF HUMANITARIAN AND HUMAN RIGHTS LAW TO DETAINEES IN GUANTANAMO BAY390

8B.2.1 The framework: international humanitarian law391

8B.2.2 The framework: international human rights law392

8B.3 Categories of detainees396

8B.3.1 Entitlement to POW status398

8B.3.2 'Civilian' detainees401

8B.3.3 Persons not covered by GC III or GC IV?403

8B.4 Specific rights of detainees under IHL and IHRL404

8B.4.1 Existence of a lawful basis for detention404

8B.4.2 Status determinations407

8B.4.3 Information on reasons for arrest and detention411

8B.4.4 Judicial oversight of detention413

8B.4.5 Prosecution-fair trial rights417

8B.5 Standards of protection compared: implications of POW status?428

8B.5.1 Rights regarding interrogation428

8B.5.2 Indefinite detention-repatriation429

8C RESPONDING TO GUANTANAMO430

8C.6 The obligations of third states430

8C.7 The international response to the Guantanamo detentions434

8C.8 Guantanamo Bay: implications and potential repercussions?437

8C.9 Conclusion441

9 Conclusion443

9.1 September 11 as opportunity and the 'war on terror' response443

9.2 The legal framework445

9.3 The 'war on terror' and international legality: some essential characteristics447

9.4 Early reactions and key challenges: is the pendulum swinging and where might it stop?449

Bibliography453

Index465