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PART Ⅰ1

1 Introduction3

1.1 Background3

1.1.1 Development of biometrics3

1.1.2 Public debate4

1.1.3 State of legal research6

1.2 Subject matter and aims of this book8

1.2.1 Research objectives8

1.2.2 Research challenges10

1.3 Scope and limitations11

1.3.1 Technology11

1.3.2 Furisdiction12

1.3.3 Privacy and data protection law13

1.4 Methodology14

1.4.1 A system-oriented analysis: allocation of risks14

1.4.2 De lege lata and de lege ferenda analyses14

1.4.3 Legal methods15

1.5 Resources17

1.5.1 Sources of law17

1.5.2 Secondary sources: the commenting literature19

1.6 Terminology20

1.7 Progression23

2 Biometric technology and its applications29

2.1 Introduction29

2.2 Characteristics of biometrics29

2.3 Biometric authentication vs. identification31

2.4 Biometric system operation32

2.5 Privacy and security risks of a biometric system36

2.6 Types of biometrics38

2.6.1 Fingerprint recognition39

2.6.2 Iris recognition40

2.6.3 Facial recognition41

2.6.4 Handgeometry41

2.6.5 Voice recognition42

2.6.6 Vein recognition43

2.7 Summary of biometrics44

2.8 Other related technologies46

2.8.1 Smart cards46

2.8.2 Radio frequency identification (RFID)48

2.9 Biometric applications49

2.9.1 Examples o f biometric applications50

2.9.2 Analysis of the examples in light of Wayman’s classification criteria53

2.10 Summary53

PART Ⅱ61

3 Rational concerns about biometric technology:security and privacy63

3.1 Introduction63

3.2 Special nature of biometric technology and biometric data64

3.2.1 he biological nature of biometric data and technology64

3.2.2 The automatic nature of biometric data and biometric technology68

3.3 Privacy and biometric technology71

3.3.1 Information privacy and biometric technology72

3.3.2 Physical privacy and biometric technology79

3.4 Security and biometric technology81

3.4.1 Limitations of technology81

3.4.2 Misconceptions relating to biometric technology83

3.4.3 Security problems posed by biometric technology84

3.5 Summary87

PART Ⅲ93

4 Regulation of biometrics by privacy and data protection law in Europe95

4.1 Introduction95

4.2 Sources ofprivacy protection96

4.2.1 Article 8 of the ECHR96

4.2.2 Convention No. 108 on Data Protection97

4.2.3 Data Protection Directive99

4.3 Privacy challenges of biometric technology on privacy lawe100

4.3.1 Scope of the privacy instruments101

4.3.2 Biometrics and informational privacy115

4.3.3 Biometrics and reasonable expectation ofprivacy148

4.4 Conclusions150

5 Biometrics and privacy protection in the United States163

5.1 Introduction163

5.2 Legal sources of privacy protection164

5.2.1 Privacy protection under the US Constitution164

5.2.2 Federal statutory privacy protection164

5.2.3 Actions under common law in torts165

5.3 Countering privacy risks of biometric technology through privacy law165

5.3.1 US Constitution165

5.3.2 Federal privacy statutes178

5.3.3 Common law of torts189

5.4 Bio-privacy case law and regulations194

5.4.1 Case law concerning biometrics194

5.4.2 Privacy legislations concerning biometrics198

5.5 Conclusions201

6 Privacy regulations on biometrics in Australia213

6.1 Introduction213

6.2 Sources of privacy protection214

6.2.1 The Privacy Act214

6.2.2 Biometrics Institute Privacy Code215

6.3 Coverage of Privacy Act and Privacy Code216

6.3.1 Definition of bionetrics216

6.3.2 Personal information and identifier217

6.3.3 Exemptions218

6.3.4 Sensitive information219

6.4 Information privacy challenges of biometrics221

6.4.1 Unauthorised collections: notice and consent221

6.4.2 Unnecessary collection223

6.4.3 Function creep: secondary use and disclosure225

6.4.4 Anonymity228

6.4.5 Information security risks and biometrics230

6.5 Physical privacy and biometrics233

6.6 Conclusions233

PART Ⅳ241

7 Towards an appropriate regulatory approach for bio-privacy243

7.1 Introduction243

7.2 Self-regulation243

7.3 Hard regulation246

7.3.1 General privacy regulations246

7.3.2 Biometric-specific regulations247

7.4 A hybrid approach249

7.5 Conclusion250

8 Concluding remarks and future vision253

8.1 Introduction253

8.2 Rational concerns of biometric technology253

8.3 Adequacy of current legal framework254

8.4 Appropriate regulatory approach258

8.5 General recommendations and postscripts258

Appendix 1: Personal Data Act, Norway263

Appendix 2: Biometric Identifier Privacy Act267

Index271