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PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE19

CHAPTER 1 Introduction(Katharine Densford Dreves,RN,BA,MA,DSc,LLD)21

Reactions of students to the course in chemistry21

Recommended method of study21

Definitions22

Why do we study chemistry?22

Word regarding the author24

CHAPTER 2 Metric system26

Centigrade temperature scale26

Units of length26

Units of weight26

Units of volume29

Study questions29

CHAPTER 3 Chemical substances30

Physical and chemical changes30

Simple and compound substances31

Elements and compounds31

Factors influencing the activities of substances32

Factors affecting the speed of chemical reactions33

Study questions34

CHAPTER 4 Atoms and molecules35

Atomic theory35

Atomic weight35

Atomic numbers35

Molecules36

Molecular weight36

Subatomic particles37

Supposed structure of the atom37

Isotopes40

Van der Waals forces42

Study questions42

CHAPTER 5 Chemical shorthand and the concept of valence43

Atomic symbol43

Formula for the compound43

Concept of valence45

Structural formula46

Chemical equation46

Radicals49

Prediction of the products of reaction50

Relationship between valence and atomic structure51

Study questions52

CHAPTER 6 Oxygen53

Occurrence53

Discovery of oxygen53

Preparation53

Properties54

Vital importance55

Burning55

Kindling temperature55

Extinguishing fires55

Importance of oxygen gas in everyday life56

Commercial uses of oxygen57

Use of oxygen in therapy57

Problem of the rusting of iron58

Oxides58

Study questions58

CHAPTER 7 Energy transformations60

Definition60

Energy conversions60

Measurement of energy60

Chemical energy61

Energy production from foods61

Study questions62

CHAPTER 8 Water63

Composition63

Occurrence63

Physical properties of biological importance63

Reaction with metals64

Reaction with oxides65

Hydrates65

Hydrolysis66

Study questions66

CHAPTER 9 Solutions68

Meaning of the termsolution68

Solvent and solute68

Solutions with liquid solvents68

Factors influencing solubility68

Types of solution69

Freezing and boiling points of solutions69

Methods of expressing concentration69

Surface tension71

Interfacial tension72

Surface active substances72

Emulsions72

Osmotic pressure74

Colloidal dispersions75

Dialysis76

Colloid osmotic pressure76

Adsorption77

Chromatography78

Study questions78

CHAPTER 10 Acids,bases,and salts80

Inorganic and organic compounds80

Definitions80

Indicators80

Acids81

General properties of acids81

Physical properties of acids84

Rules for naming acids84

Bases85

General properties of bases85

Physical properties of baser86

Rule for naming bases86

Salts87

General properties of salts87

Salts responsible for hard water88

Acid salts89

Rules for naming salts89

Study questions91

CHAPTER 11 Ionization92

Electrolytes and non-electrolytes92

Strong and weak electrolytes92

Osmotic pressure of electrolytes92

Theory of ionization94

Electrovalence and the nature of ions95

Covalence95

Conduction of an electric current by electrolyte solutions99

Acids and bases in water solution99

Salts in water solution100

Physiological importance of ions101

Equilibrium in electrolyte solutions101

Water as an electrolyte102

pH notation103

Importance of pH control104

Buffers105

Study questions106

CHAPTER 12 Oxidation and reduction107

Oxidation-reduction reactions107

Metathetic reactions107

Electron transfers in oxidation-reduction reactions107

Oxidizing and reducing agents108

Importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in medicine109

Study questions111

CHAPTER 13 Periodic table and some important elements112

Periodicity of the elements112

Modern periodic table113

Hydrogen113

Alkali metals115

Alkaline-earth metals115

Boron and aluminum116

Silicon,tin,and lead116

Nitrogen,phosphorus,arsenic,antimony,and bismuth118

Sulfur119

Halogens120

Noble gases121

Copper,silver,and gold121

Zinc and mercury122

Iron124

Precious stones124

Study questions124

CHAPTER 14 Nuclear chemistry and atomic energy126

Introduction126

Natural radioactivity126

Bombardment with charged particles127

Bombardment with neutrons130

Atomic energy130

Nuclear fusion132

Use of radioactive elements as tracers132

Study questions136

CHAPTER 15 Introduction to organic chemistry137

Introduction137

Sources of organic compounds138

Importance of organic substances138

Comparison of organic and inorganic reactions138

Carbon as an element138

Important properties of the carbon atom139

Use of structural formulas in organic chemistry140

Saturated and unsaturated compounds142

Characteristic groups142

Divisions of organic compounds143

Study questions144

CHAPTER 16 Aliphatic organic compounds145

Hydrocarbons145

Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons145

Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons149

Reaction of hydrocarbons with oxygen150

Reaction of hydrocarbons with halogens150

Hydrocarbon radicals152

Alcohols152

Definition152

Types of alcohol153

Comparison of alcohols and inorganic hydroxides153

Reactions with oxygen154

Some important alcohols154

Aldehydes and ketones156

Definitions156

Reactions157

Important aldehydes157

Important ketones158

Organic acids and salts158

Definitions and properties158

Typical organic acids159

Esters160

Definition and properties160

Important esters163

Ethers163

Amines164

Study questions166

CHAPTER 17 Isomerism of organic compounds168

Introduction168

Chain or nuclear isomerism168

Geometric or cis-trans isomerism168

Tautomerism or dynamic isomerism170

Position isomerism170

Optical isomerism171

Summary175

Study questions175

CHAPTER 18 Cyclic organic compounds176

Cycloparaffins or naphthenes176

Aromatic compounds177

Aromatic hydrocarbons177

Benzene177

Structure of benzene177

Properties of benzene181

Other important aromatic hydrocarbons182

Oxygen derivatives of the aromatic hydrocarbons184

Aromatic alcohols184

Benzyl alcohol184

Phenethyl alcohol184

Phenols185

Naphthols188

Alkylated phenols188

Aromatic aldehydes189

Benzaldehyde189

Aromatic ketones190

Benzophenone190

Acetophenone191

Chloracetophenone191

Quinones191

Aromatic acids191

Benzoic acid192

Salicylic acid192

Aromatic amines193

Primary aromatic amines193

Aniline193

Secondary aromatic amines195

Tertiary aromatic amines195

Dyes195

Heterocyclic compounds197

Heterocyclic compounds with five-membered rings198

Furane198

Thiophene198

Thiazole198

Pyrrole198

Imidazole199

Heterocyclic compounds with six-membered rings199

Pyridine199

Heterocyclic compounds with condensed rings200

Indole200

Quinoline201

Other heterocyclic compounds201

Ureides201

Pyrimidines202

Purines203

Alkaloids203

Study questions205

PART TWO PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY207

CHAPTER 19 Nature of enzymes209

Definitions209

Chemical nature of enzymes209

Speed of enzyme action209

Enzyme specificity210

Proenzymes210

Activators and inhibitors210

Coenzymes211

Types of reaction catalyzed by enzymes211

Autolysis214

Diseases of enzymic defect214

Mechanism of drug action214

Study questions217

CHAPTER 20 Chemical nature of lipids218

Definition of lipid218

Types of lipid218

Types of fatty acid219

Soaps220

Chemical nature of fats222

Oils223

Hydrogenation of fats223

Acrolein test223

Rancidity of fats224

Phospholipids224

Glycolipids225

Waxes225

Sterols226

Study questions227

CHAPTER 21 Metabolism of lipids228

Definition of metabolism228

Summary of fat digestion228

Anabolic products of fatty adds229

Functions of depot fat229

Catabolism of fatty adds230

Ketone bodies233

Causes of ketosis234

Function of the liver in fatty add catabolism234

Question of conversion of fat to carbohydrate235

Functions of phospholipids235

Sterol metabolism236

Obesity239

Study questions241

CHAPTER 22 Chemical nature of carbohydrates243

Definitions243

Types of carbohydrate243

Hexoses243

Fermentation246

Pentoses246

Disaccharides247

Some important polysaccharides248

Glucosides250

Origin of carbohydrates250

Study questions251

CHAPTER 23 Metabolism of carbohydrates252

Summary of carbohydrate digestion252

Fate of fructose and galactose252

Glycogen formation253

Glycogenolysis254

Blood sugar level254

Chemical changes in muscle contraction254

Metabolism of nerve tissue258

Conversion of carbohydrate to fat258

Energy of carbohydrate oxidation258

Protein-sparing action of carbohydrate259

Action of epinephrine259

Functions of insulin259

Glucagon262

Study questions264

CHAPTER 24 Chemical nature of proteins265

Introduction265

Types of protein265

Isoelectric point266

Amino acids268

Methods of making proteins insoluble272

Protein solvents273

Color reactions of proteins274

Hemoglobin274

Methemoglobin275

Carbon monoxide poisoning275

Nucleoproteins275

Study questions282

CHAPTER 25 Metabolism of proteins283

Summary of protein digestion283

Anabolic products of amino acids283

Essential amino acids283

Amino acid catabolism284

Fate of urea284

Formation of ammonium salts by the kidneys284

Ammonium salts in blood285

Energy of protein catabolism285

Purine metabolism285

Pyrimidine metabolism286

Creatine and creatinine287

Anabolism of hemoglobin288

Catabolism of hemoglobin288

Special transformations of certain amino acids in the body291

Glycine291

Cystine291

Tyrosine291

Histidine292

Methionine292

Metabolic interrelationships294

Study questions295

CHAPTER 26 Chemistry of the digestive tract297

Introduction297

Teeth297

Saliva300

Gastric juice300

Secretin304

Pancreatic juice305

Bile306

Intestinal juice308

Enterogastrone309

Bacterial action in the intestine309

Feces310

Study questions311

CHAPTER 27 Inorganic metabolism313

Water313

Sodium bicarbonate315

Sodium chloride316

Calcium316

Phosphorus318

Potassium318

Iron319

Iodine320

Fluorine320

Stimulating and depressing ions321

Study questions321

CHAPTER 28 Blood323

Introduction323

Transport of oxygen to the tissues327

Transport of carbon dioxide to the lungs328

Acid-base balance329

Plasma proteins331

Blood clotting335

Nonprotein nitrogen339

Blood sugar level340

Plasma lipids340

Some important inorganic components341

Study questions342

CHAPTER 29 Urine344

Introduction344

Formation of urine344

Collection of urine for analysis345

Volume of urine346

Color of urine347

Specific gravity of urine347

Reaction of urine348

Composition of urine348

Abnormal components of urine348

Urine sediment350

Study questions355

CHAPTER 30 Hormones356

Introduction356

Hormones of the ovary356

Hormones of the testis363

Hormone of the thyroid gland365

Hormone of the parathyroid glands369

Hormones of the adrenal glands371

Hormone of the pancreas378

Hormones of the pituitary gland380

Miscellaneous postulated factors384

General adaptation syndrome389

Hormones of the digestive tract391

Antihormones392

Renin mechanism392

Study questions393

CHAPTER 31 Vitamins395

Introduction395

Vitamin A396

Provitamins396

Chemical nature of vitamin A396

Vitamin A deficiency396

Storage of vitamin A in the body399

Absorption of vitamin A400

Standardization and requirements of vitamin A400

Sources of vitamin A400

Vitamin B complex401

Thiamin(vitamin B1)401

Chemical nature of thiamin401

Thiamin deficiency402

Thiamin pyrophosphate as a coenzyme405

Absorption and storage of thiamin405

Requirements of thiamin407

Sources of thiamin407

Riboflavin407

Chemical nature of riboflavin407

Relation to the yellow enzyme407

Riboflavin in nutrition407

Suggested requirements of riboflavin408

Nicotinic acid and nicotinic acid amide408

Role in cell oxidations408

Pellagra409

Vitamin B12(cyanocobalamin)411

Folic acid complex412

Pyridoxine414

Pantothenic acid415

Choline416

Biotin417

Inositol418

Ascorbic acid(vitamin C)418

Chemical nature of ascorbic acid418

Deficiency of ascorbic acid419

Ascorbic acid deficiency in animals421

Requirements of ascorbic acid421

Food sources of ascorbic acid422

Citrin(vitamin P)422

Vitamin D423

Chemical nature of vitamin D423

Supposed function of vitamin D424

Deficiency of vitamin D424

Hypervitaminosis D427

Standardization and requirements of vitamin D427

Sources of vitamin D427

Vitamin E427

Chemical nature of vitamin E427

Deficiency in rats428

Deficiency in other animals428

Possible role in human nutrition429

Sources of vitamin E429

Vitamin K429

Chemical nature of vitamin K429

Function of vitamin K430

Use of vitamin K in human pathology430

Sources of vitamin K431

Study questions431

CHAPTER 32 Introduction to nutrition433

Introduction433

Basal metabolism434

Energy requirement435

Protein requirement438

Mineral(inorganic) requirement440

Lipid requirement442

Acid and alkaline effects of foods443

Ketogenic and antiketogenic diets443

Residue and water in the diet443

Diet in pregnancy and lactation444

Nutrition in infancy and childhood444

Reducing diets447

Study questions452

Appendix453

International atomic weights453

Antibiotics454

Precious stones456

Some agents used in chemical warfare461

Common organic radicals464

Amino acids commonly found in proteins466