Methods of research in criminology and criminal justice2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载

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1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AS A WAY TO MINIMIZE HUMAN ERROR1

Theory and Research3

Head, Body, and Crime: An Example of Long-Lasting Damage to Knowledge Resulting from Human Errors9

Research Methodology as a Process11

Essential Features of Research Methodology Comparison/Alternative Plausible Hypotheses13

Basic and Applied Research17

References19

2 ETHICS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH21

Ethical Relativism23

The Nuremberg Code25

Anonymity and Deception27

APA Standards28

Research Posing Ethical Issues Behavior in a Simulated Prison/Tearoom Trade31

References35

3 RESEARCH IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE: ISSUES AND PREPARATION37

Research Issues "Bellow Like a Bull"/The Last Word/More Court Matters/Feedback from Probation Officers/ Police and Weapons/Causes of Crime/ Further Research Topics39

Preparation for Research Site Exploration and Related Details/Review of the Literature51

References58

4 ON ALTERNATIVE PLAUSIBLE HYPOTHESES60

Internal and External Validity62

Subjects as Sources of Error "Center of Attention" Effects/Biological and Psychological Alterations/Selection63

Pitfalls in Measurement Methods Reactivity/Pretesting Effect/Response Set/Changes in Measuring Instruments/Interviewer Effect76

Situational Factors as Sources of Error82

Experiments as Sources of Error83

Problem in Crime Statistics Uniform Crime Reports/Unreported Crime—"The Dark Figure"84

References88

5 TECHNIQUES FOR AVOIDING ERRORS90

Nonreactive Measures Erosion Measures/Accretion Measures/Physical Evidence/Archival Data/General Forms of Nonreactive Measure91

Control Groups Ethical Considerations in Using Control Groups/Equating Treatment and Control Groups/Placebos as Controls102

Dealing with Flaws in Crime Statistics110

Victimization Surveys General Considerations/National Crime Survey (NCS)111

References116

6 STANDARD APPROACHES TO RESEARCH118

Ways of Classifying Research Classification by Purpose/Statistical Classification/Temporal Classification/Classification by Control over Variables119

Control and the Advancement of Knowledge121

Systematic Observation Naturalistic Observation/Surveys: Questionnaires and Interviews/Physical Traces and Archival Records/Sociometry124

Experimentation The "True" Experiment/The Nonlaboratory Experiment140

References148

7 PROGRAM EVALUATION150

What Is Program Evaluation?151

An Example: Evaluating "Scared Straight" The Program/The Finckenauer Reports153

Evaluator as Advocate157

Issues of Generalizability159

Assessing Process and Assessing Impact Process Assessment/Impact Assessment160

Issues of Economics167

Conclusions169

References170

8 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY171

Measures of Central Tendency Mean/Proportion/Median/Mode173

Indicators of Variability Variance/Standard Deviation/Mean Absolute Deviation from the Median/Range179

Standard Scores183

9 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: CORRELATION188

The Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient190

The Meaning of Correlation Scatter Diagrams/Correlation in Everyday Phenomena/Examples of Use of Correlation Coefficients196

Other Measures of Correlation Curvilinear Relationships/Dichotomous Data/Ranked Data202

Correlation and Causation214

References215

10 PROBABILITY AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS216

Probability Sample Space/Equal Likelihood/Mutually Exclusive Events/Properties of Probability/Probabilities in the General Case216

ProbabiLity Distributions Binomial Distribution/Normal Distribution227

11 STATISTICAL INFERENCE239

Sampling Simple Random Sampfing/Stratified Sampling/Cluster Sampling239

Statistical Inference The Logic of Statistical Inference/Estimation/Testing Statistical Hypotheses248

INDEX261