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Part A Introduction1

1 Introduction: What is International Criminal Law?1

1.1 International criminal law1

1.2 Other concepts of international criminal law3

1.3 Sources of international criminal law6

1.4 International criminal law and other areas of law9

1.5 A body of criminal law12

2 The Objectives of International Criminal Law17

2.1 Introduction17

2.2 The aims of international criminal justice18

2.3 Alternatives and complements to criminal prosecution30

Part B Prosecutions in National Courts37

3 Jurisdiction37

3.1 Introduction37

3.2 The forms of jurisdiction37

3.3 Conceptual matters39

3.4 The 'traditional' heads of jurisdiction40

3.5 Universal jurisdiction44

4 National Prosecutions of International Crimes54

4.1 Introduction54

4.2 National prosecutions54

4.3 State obligations to prosecute or extradite58

4.4 Domestic criminal law and criminal jurisdiction61

4.5 Statutory limitations64

4.6 Principle of non-retroactivity66

4.7 Ne bis in idem or double jeopardy67

4.8 Practical obstacles to national prosecutions69

5 State Cooperation with Respect to National Proceedings71

5.1 Introduction71

5.2 International agreements72

5.3 Some basic features73

5.4 Extradition79

5.5 Mutual legal assistance86

5.6 Transfer of proceedings88

5.7 Enforcement of penalties88

Part C International Prosecutions91

6 The History of International Criminal Prosecutions:Nuremberg and Tokyo91

6.1 Introduction91

6.2 The Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War91

6.3 The Nuremberg International Military Tribunal92

6.4 The Tokyo International Military Tribunal96

6.5 Control Council Law No. 10 trials and military commissions in the Pacific sphere100

7 The ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals102

7.1 Introduction102

7.2 The International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia102

7.3 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda112

8 The International Criminal Court119

8.1 Introduction119

8.2 The creation of the ICC119

8.3 Structure and composition of the ICC124

8.4 Crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC125

8.5 Complementarity127

8.6 Initiation of proceedings (the 'trigger mechanisms')133

8.7 Jurisdiction: personal, territorial and temporal135

8.8 Deferral of investigation or prosecution138

8.9 Enforcement of the ICC's decisions139

8.10 Opposition to the ICC139

8.11 Early developments at the ICC145

9 Other Courts with International Elements149

9.1 Introduction149

9.2 Courts established by agreement between the United Nations and a State150

9.3 Courts established by the United Nations or other international administration155

9.4 Courts established by a State with international support160

9.5 Lockerbie: an ad hoc solution for a particular incident162

9.6 Relationship to the ICC162

Part D Substantive Law of International Crimes165

10 Genocide165

10.1 Introduction165

10.2 The protected groups169

10.3 Material elements174

10.4 Mental elements179

10.5 Other acts185

11 Crimes Against Humanity187

11.1 Introduction187

11.2 Common elements (the contextual threshold)191

11.3 Prohibited acts200

12 War Crimes221

12.1 Introduction221

12.2 Common issues232

12.3 Specific offences241

13 Aggression262

13.1 Introduction262

13.2 State responsibility for unlawful use of force267

13.3 Material elements271

13.4 Mental elements274

13.5 Prosecution of aggression in the ICC275

14 Transnational Crimes, Terrorism and Torture281

14.1 Introduction281

14.2 Terrorism283

14.3 Torture294

Part E Principles and Procedures of International Prosecutions301

15 General Principles of Liability301

15.1 Introduction301

15.2 Perpetration/commission302

15.3 Joint criminal enterprise304

15.4 Aiding and abetting310

15.5 Ordering, instigating, soliciting, inducing and inciting312

15.6 Planning, preparation, attempt and conspiracy316

15.7 Mental elements318

15.8 Command/superior responsibility320

16 Defences/Grounds for Excluding Criminal Responsibility331

16.1 Introduction331

16.2 The ICC Statute and defences332

16.3 Mental incapacity333

16.4 Intoxication335

16.5 Self-defence, defence of others and of property337

16.6 Duress and necessity339

16.7 Mistake of fact and law341

16.8 Superior orders342

16.9 Other'defences'346

17 Procedures of International Criminal Investigations and Prosecutions349

17.1 International criminal procedures349

17.2 International criminal proceedings and human rights353

17.3 Actors in the proceedings and their roles359

17.4 Jurisdiction and admissibility procedures364

17.5 Commencement and discontinuance of a criminal investigation365

17.6 The criminal investigation366

17.7 Coercive measures368

17.8 Prosecution and indictment373

17.9 Pre-trial proceedings-preparations for trial378

17.10 Evidentiary rules382

17.11 Admission of guilt, guilty pleas, plea-bargaining384

17.12 Trial and judgment386

17.13 Appeals proceedings388

17.14 Revision390

17.15 Offences against the administration of justice391

18 Sentencing, Penalties and Reparations to Victims393

18.1 International punishment of crimes393

18.2 Purposes of sentencing395

18.3 Sentencing practice396

18.4 Reparations to victims400

18.5 Sentencing procedures400

18.6 Pardon, early release and review of sentence401

18.7 Enforcement401

Part F Relationship Between National and International Systems405

19 State Cooperation with the International Courts and Tribunals405

19.1 Characteristics of the cooperation regimes405

19.2 Obligation to cooperate406

19.3 Non-States Parties and international organizations410

19.4 Non-compliance412

19.5 Cooperation and the ICC complementarity principle412

19.6 Authority to seek cooperation and defence rights413

19.7 Arrest and surrender414

19.8 Other forms of legal assistance416

19.9 Domestic implementation419

19.10 An assessment420

20 Immunities422

20.1 Introduction422

20.2 Functional immunity428

20.3 Affirmation of personal immunity before national courts434

20.4 Relinquishment of personal immunity in international courts438

20.5 Conclusion444

21 Conclusions: The Future of International Criminal Law446

21.1 Introduction446

21.2 International courts and tribunals446

21.3 Developments in national prosecutions of international crimes447

21.4 The trend towards accountability449

21.5 The development of international criminal law451

21.6 The path forward (or back?)453

Index456