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INTRODUCTION1

CHAPTER I. A brief survey of the history of linguistics.1

CHAPTER II. Data and aims of linguistics: connexions with related sciences.6

CHAPTER III. The object of study.8

1.On defining a ianguage8

Preface by Halliday11

2.Linguistic structure: its place among the facts of language11

王宗炎序12

3.Languages and their place in human affairs Semiology15

Preface by Chomsky15

CHAPTER IV. Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech18

CHAPTER V. Internal and external elements of a language21

沈家煊序22

1.Why it is necessary to study this topic24

CHAPTER VI. Representation of a language by writing.24

2.The prestige of writing :reasons for its ascendancy over the spoken word24

导读25

3.Systems of writing26

4.Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation27

5.Consequences of this inconsistency29

CHAPTER VII. Physiological phonetics.32

1.Definition of the subject32

2.Transcription33

3.Writingasas evidence34

APPENDIX PRINCIPPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS39

CHAPTER I. Sound types.39

1.On defining speech sounds39

2.The vocal apparatus and how it works41

Translator s Introduction41

3.Classification of sounds by oral articulation44

Preface to the First Edition49

1.Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences50

CHAPTER II. Sounds in spoken sequences.50

2.Adduction and abduction52

Preface to the Third Edition52

Preface to the Second Edition52

3.Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence54

4.Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks57

5.Criticism of theories of syllabification58

6.Duration of adduction and abduction59

7.Sounds of aperture 4 Diphthongs Questions of spelling Editorial note62

1.Sign,signification,signal65

CHAPTER I. Nature of the linguistic sign.65

PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES65

2.First principle: the sign is arbitrary67

3.Second principle: linear character of the signal69

CHAPTER II. Invariability and variability of the sign.71

1.Invariability71

2.Variability74

CHAPTER III. Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.79

1.Internal duality of all sciences concerned with values79

2.Internal duality and the history of linguistics81

3.Examples of internal duality83

4.Difference between the two orders illustrated by comparisons87

5.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics. Their methods and principles contrasted89

6.Synchronic laws and diachronic laws90

7.Is there a panchronic point of view?94

8.Consequences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony94

9.Conclusions96

PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS99

CHAPTER I. General observations.99

1.Entities and units Definitions101

CHAPTER II. Concrete entities of a language.101

2.Methods of delimitation102

3.Practical difficulties of delimitation103

4.Conclusion105

CHAPTER III. Identities, realities, oalues.106

CHAPTER IV. Linguistic value.110

1.The language as thought organised in sound110

2.Linguistic value: conceptual aspects112

3. Linguistic value: material aspects116

4.The sign as a whole118

1.Definitions121

CHAPTER V. Syntagmatic relations and associative relations.121

2.Syntagmatic relations122

3.Associative relations123

1.Syntagmatic interdependences126

2.Simultaneous functioning of both types of group127

1.Their nature and purpose127

3.Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness130

CHAPTER VIIl. Grammar and its subdivisions.133

1.Definitions. Traditional divisions133

2.Rational divisions135

CHAPTER VIII. Abstract entities in grammar136

CHAPTER VI. The language mechanism.136

PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS139

CHAPTER I. General observations.139

CHAPTER II. Sound changes143

1.Their absolute regularity143

2.Conditioning of sound changes143

3.Methodological considerations145

4.Causes of sound change145

5.The scope of sound change is unpredictable150

1.Breaking grammatical links152

CHAPTER III. Grammatical consequences of phonetic evolution.152

2.Obliteration of word-composition153

3.There are no phonetic doublets154

4.Alternation155

5.Laws of alternation157

6.Alternation and grammatical link159

1.Definition and examples160

CHAPTER IV.Analogy.160

2.Analogies are not changes162

3.Analogy as the creative principle in languages164

CHAPTER V. Analogy and evolution167

1.How an analogical innovation enters the language167

2.Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interpretation168

3.Analogy as a principle of renovation and conservation170

CHAPTER VI. Popular etymology.172

CHAPTER VII. Agglutination.175

1.Definition175

2.Agglutination and analogy176

CHAPTER VIII. Diachronic units, identities and realities.178

APPENDICES182

A. Subjective and objective analysis182

B. Subjective analysis and determination of units smaller than the word183

C. Etymology187

PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS189

CHAPTER I. On the diversity of languages,189

CHAPTER II. Geographical diversity: its complexity.192

1.Coexistence of several languages in the same place192

2.Literary language and local dialect193

CHAPTER III. Causes of geographical diversity.196

1.Time, the essential cause196

2.Linguistic areas affected by time198

3.Dialects have no natural boundaries200

4.Languages have no natural boundaries202

CHAPTER IV. Propagation of linguistic waves.204

1.Force of intercourse and parochialism204

2.A single principle underlying both forces206

3.Linguistic differentiation in separate areas206

PART FIVE QUESTIONS OF RETROSPEOTIVE LINGUISTICS CONCLUSION211

CHAPTER I. The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics.211

CHAPTER II. Earliest languages and prototypes.214

CHAPTER III. Reconstructions.217

2.Degree of certainty of reconstructions219

CHAPTER IV. Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory221

1.Languages and races221

2.Ethnicity222

3.Linguistic paleontology223

4.Linguistic types and group mentality225

CHAPTER V. Language families and linguistic types227

Index231

文件索引237