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1.Accountability1

Early History of U.S.Policing and Accountability2

Vollmer’s Framework of Leadership3

Twentieth-Century Impacts on Accountability4

External Sources of Police Misconduct5

The Miranda Warning6

Citizen Review Boards and Guilds7

Internal Sources of Police Misconduct8

Pro: Arguments in Favor of External Oversight9

The Officer Shuffle10

Officer Misconduct Database10

Con: Arguments Against External Oversight11

Legislative Changes11

2.Arrest Practices15

The Probable Cause Requirement15

Observations Made by the Officer16

Anonymous Sources With Unknown Reliability17

Reliable Anonymous Sources17

Arrest Warrants17

Making an Arrest17

Miranda Warnings18

Investigative Detention and Arrest20

The Terry Stop Case21

Field Interviews Versus Consensual Encounters21

Factors Defining a Field Interview21

Initiation and Conduct of Field Interviews22

Arrest and Prone Restraint24

Arrests by Off-Duty Officers24

Arresting Juveniles25

Pro: Positive Aspects of the Arrest Function26

Con: Limitations of the Arrest Function26

Effects on the Suspect27

3.Bounty Hunters and Rewards29

The Judas Jigsaw30

Good Samaritans30

Frontier Vigilantes31

Bail and Bounties32

Police and Community Rewards32

How Do the Police Feel About Rewards?33

Notable Reward Cases34

Crime Stoppers and Tax Whistleblowers36

Targeting Terrorists36

Pro: Arguments in Support of Bounties and Rewards38

Con: Arguments Against Rewards and Bounties38

4.Entrapment41

Historical Origins42

Legal Development in the Supreme Court42

Subjective and Objective Approaches44

The Groundbreaking Case of Jacobson v.United States45

Entrapment Applied: Abscam46

Pro: Support of Government Undercover Investigations48

Con: Opposition of Broad Law Enforcement Discretion49

Failure of the Subjective Test for Government Conduct50

Unjustifiable Governmental Tactics50

The Ethics of Deception52

Conclusion52

5.Internal Review Practices55

Overview of Police Internal Review Practices56

Public Complaints and Access57

Maintaining Legitimacy58

Four Possible Conclusions60

Pro: Arguments in Favor of Internal Review Systems61

Con: Arguments Against Internal Review Systems62

6.Interrogation Practices69

Overview70

Early Judicial Decisions70

The Changing Meaning of Voluntary Confession71

The Christian Burial Case72

Police Interrogation Tactics73

Interrogation Environment74

Interrogation Programs and Published Techniques75

Pro: Benefits of Securing a Confession76

Con: Drawbacks of Securing a Confession77

Conclusion78

Comprehension of a Suspect’s Rights79

7.Miranda Warnings83

Foundations of the Miranda Warnings84

Repercussions of the Court Decision85

Vacillations on Miranda86

The Burger Court86

The Rehnquist Court88

Interpretation of the Warnings88

When Miranda Is and Is Not Required89

The Right to Silence Versus the Right to Counsel91

Proper Use of Miranda and Suspect Voluntariness91

Juvenile Suspects and Comprehension of Miranda92

Pro: Arguments in Support of the Miranda Decision93

Con: Arguments Against the Use of Miranda94

Coercive Interrogation Tactics95

8.Plain View Doctrine97

The Fourth Amendment98

Katz v.United States99

The Coolidge Test100

Covering the Five Senses101

Sense-Augmenting Surveillance102

Extrasensory Surveillance105

Pro: Strengths of the Plain View Doctrine Compromise107

Clear Guidance107

Con: Limitations of the Plain View Doctrine108

9.Police Brutality111

Defining Police Brutality112

Deadly Force114

Non-Deadly Force115

Prevalence of Police Use of Force and Brutality116

Potential Causes of Police Brutality117

Police Subculture118

Biases Among Individual Officers118

Burnout and Cynicism119

Curbing Police Brutality120

Civilian Review Boards120

Early Warning Systems121

Pro: Arguments Supporting Police Use of Heavy Force122

Con: Arguments Against Permitting Police Brutality123

Support of Research124

10.Police Corruption and Code of Silence129

Defining Police Corruption130

Types of Police Corruption130

The History of Police Corruption in America131

The 1970s Knapp Commission: Meat Eaters and Grass Eaters132

The 1990s and Beyond132

Theories of Police Corruption133

Preventing and Controlling Corruption135

Positive Leadership135

Administrative Rulemaking and Corruption Investigations135

Community Policing135

Code of Silence136

Pro: Arguments in Favor of the Code of Silence137

Con: Arguments Against the Code of Silence139

Conclusion140

11.Police Privatization143

Politics, Privatization, and Policing144

Historical Fluctuations of Private Policing in America144

Organizational Design of Public Policing146

Public-Choice and Interorganizational Theories146

Public-Interest, Economic, and Management Dimensions147

Pro: Arguments in Support of Police Privatization148

Reducing Costs and Gaining Efficiency148

Competitive Pressures Beneficial to Democracy149

Con: Arguments in Opposition to Police Privatization150

Profit Motivations, Ethics, and Accountability151

Use of Force, Violations of Human Rights, and Social Control152

Quality and Costs of Services152

Legality153

Looking Forward154

12.Police Strikes and Blue Flu157

Early History of Police Strikes158

Modern History of Police Strikes159

The Legality of Police Strikes161

Pro: Arguments in Favor of the Right of Police to Strike162

Citizen Opinion163

Con: Arguments Against Police Strikes164

Collective Bargaining and Binding Arbitration164

Community Support166

Altering Enforcement Strategies166

13.Profiling171

The Rise of Sundown Towns173

The White Supremacy-Racial Profiling Nexus175

Social Consequences175

“Out-of-Place” Policing176

Traffic Encounters176

Pro: Arguments in Favor of Profiling Research177

Con: Research on Racial Profiling Is Insufficient178

14.Riot and Demonstration Responses183

Overview of Riots and Demonstrations184

Demonstrations and Protests184

Police Riots185

The Social Underpinnings of Demonstrations and Riots187

Examples of Policing Demonstrations188

Social and Political Demonstrations and Clashes189

Calls for Reform190

Practices of Policing Demonstrations191

Containing Space192

Riot Control Measures191

Recent Transformations192

Pro: Arguments in Favor of Policing Demonstrations193

Con: Arguments Against Policing Demonstrations195

15.Use of Deadly Force199

The History of Policy Governing Use of Deadly Force200

From Fleeing Felon to Defense of Life Rule200

The Force Continuum201

Frequency of Deadly Force203

Studies Show Use of Deadly Force Is Rare204

Determinants of Deadly Force: Four Perspectives205

Situational Explanations206

Officer Behavior206

Organizational Explanations207

It’s the Neighborhood207

Pro: Arguments Supporting the Use of Deadly Force207

Con: Arguments Against the Use of Deadly Force208

16.Vehicle Searches213

History of Vehicle Searches214

Search Tools Available to the Police215

Incident to Arrest217

Arizona v.Gant218

Vehicle Searches and the War on Drugs219

Whren v.United States220

Pro: Arguments in Favor of Gant’s Search Limits221

Con: Arguments Against Gant’s Search Limits222

Conclusion223

17.Vehicular Police Pursuits225

Brief History of Police Pursuits226

Legal Challenges to Pursuits226

Significant Cases Shaping Emergency Vehicle Operation227

Owing Duty and Safe Operation228

Conditions Acceptable for Pursuit230

Pursuit Scholarship231

Pursuit Management Task Force Study231

International Association of Chiefs of Police Report233

Pursuit Policy Development234

Three Policy Scenarios234

Public Relations and Communication235

Pro: Arguments in Support of Vehicular Police Pursuits236

Con: Arguments Opposing Vehicular Police Pursuit236

18.Vigilantes239

Vigilante Beginnings240

Modern Vigilante Groups240

Vigilante Precursors: Kin-Based Order and Early Justice241

Historical Vigilantism in the United States243

Vigilantes in the 1800s244

Justice, Southern Style246

Contemporary Vigilante Movements and Impulses247

Internet And Cyber Vigilantes248

Media and Entrapment Controversies249

Vigilantes in Popular Media250

Western Films and the Golden Age of Television251

Vigilantes in Contemporary Entertainment252

Pro: Support for Vigilantism252

Con: Opposition to Vigilantism253

19.Warrants255

The History of Warrants257

The Legality of Warrants258

When a Warrant Is Not Necessary259

The Plain View Doctrine260

Warrant Requirement Exemption for Vehicles261

Pro: Arguments in Favor of Warrants263

Con: Arguments Against Requiring a Warrant264

20.Zero-Tolerance Policing269

Definition and Varieties270

Origin and History271

Broken Windows and Hot Spots271

Origins in the War on Drugs272

Theoretical Grounding273

Purpose and Outcomes274

Practices and Institutional Settings274

Pro: Arguments in Favor of Zero-Tolerance Policing275

Con: Arguments Against Zero-Tolerance Policing276

Discriminatory Practices277

Index281

About the General Editor320