SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE USA2025|PDF|Epub|mobi|kindle电子书版本百度云盘下载

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1 Demographic, economic and political overview1

Demography1

Economy3

Government and politics7

Federal government8

State and local government14

Political parties and elections15

2 Organization, development and finance of US science and technology17

Science and technology in US society17

Development of US science and technology18

From colonial days to World War II18

From World War II to the present20

Support and performance of r&d in the US22

Industry24

Government25

Universities and colleges26

Nonprofit institutions and state and local governments26

Trends in funding27

Scientific and engineering personnel29

3 Policymaking for science and technology35

Overview35

The role of the Executive Branch36

Office of Management and Budget37

Office of Science and Technology Policy38

Agencies of the Executive Branch38

The role of Congress39

Forms of Congressional influence39

Congressional organization for science and technology40

The role of non government institutions in science and technology policy42

Science and technology policy in the 1980s: recent trends and issues45

Shifting political winds45

The federal budget situation46

Growing interest in high technology46

Technology transfer and information control47

4 Government science and technology49

Overview49

Department of Defense52

Background52

Purpose and organization53

Major r&d elements55

DOD basic research58

National Aeronautics and Space Administration58

Space science and applications59

Space station60

Space transportation60

Aeronautical research and technology60

Space tracking and data systems61

Field installations61

Department of Energy63

Background63

Overall organization63

Field structure64

Headquarters organization64

Multiprogramme national laboratories66

Other DOE r&d facilities69

Department of Health and Human Services70

Introduction70

National Institutes of Health (NIH)70

Issues affecting NIH76

Other parts of the Public Health Service77

Other units of the Department of Health and Human Services79

National Science Foundation80

Overview80

Organization81

Mathematical and Physical Sciences (MPS)83

Engineering85

Biological, Behavioural and Social Sciences (BBS)86

Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth and Ocean Sciences (AAEO)86

Other programmes86

Department of Agriculture86

Agricultural Research Service (ARS)87

Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS)88

Forest Service89

Other programmes89

Department of the Interior90

US Geological Survey90

Fish and Wildlife Service92

Bureau of Mines92

Bureau of Reclamation93

Other programmes93

Department of Transportation94

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)94

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)95

Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA)95

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)95

Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)96

Other programmes96

Environmental Protection Agency96

Organizational overview96

Acid rain research99

Toxic substances100

Pesticides100

Hazardous wastes100

Air research100

Water quality and drinking water101

Interdisciplinary/intermedia programme101

Department of Commerce101

Economic, statistical and related bureaux102

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)103

National Bureau of Standards (NBS)104

Department of Education106

National Institute of Education (NIE)106

National Institute of Handicapped Research (NIHR)107

Other programmes108

Science and technology in other agencyes108

Agency for international Development (AID)108

Smithsonian Institution109

US Army Corps of Engineers109

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)110

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)110

Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC)110

Department of Labor111

Department of Justice111

Department of Housing and Urban Development111

Department of the Treasury111

Veterans Administration112

5 Higher education and academic science113

Research and higher education113

Types of institutions113

Research and the federal government114

Organizational structures and research114

R&D at universities and colleges: facts and figures116

Total expenditure116

Sources of funding116

Character of work and support mechanisms120

Fields of research122

Instrumentation and facilities122

Undergraduate and graduate education124

Undergraduate and education124

Graduate education in science and engineering125

Foreign students126

Women and disadvantaged minorities127

Student financial assistance130

College and university faculty members131

The role of organized research units134

Relations between the federal government and colleges and universities135

Issues136

Institutional versus project support136

Peer review137

Accountability139

Funding instruments139

Facilitating organizations140

University-industry relations141

6 Industrial research and development145

Overview: the role of Industry in r&d145

Company funded and federally funded r&d145

Statistical profile of Industrial r&d146

Basic research in Industry151

Statistical overview151

The role of key firms152

Influences on Industrial r&d154

Relationship of Industry and government r&d155

Industrial cooperation156

R&D in large and small firms156

R&D as an Industry158

International issues for US Industry158

Conclusion160

7 Research and development in nonprofit institutions163

The nonprofit sector163

Nonprofit research institutes165

FFRDCs167

Foundations168

Other institutions172

Voluntary hospitals172

Scientific/technical societies and academies of science173

Nonprofit scientific exhibitors173

Others173

8 Agricultural science and technology175

Nature of agricultural r&d in the US175

The federal role177

USDA177

Other federal agencies180

8 Agricultural r&d in the private sector180

Fertilizers and pesticides181

Food processing183

Issues184

Quality of research and scientific manpower184

Biotechnology185

Agricultural research and the world food problem186

9 Biomedical research and development189

Introduction189

History189

Biomedical r&d defined189

Analysis of US investment in health r&d190

Sources of funds190

Conduct of research191

Federal government role191

National Institutes of Health192

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration198

Food and Drug Administration199

Centers for Disease Control200

Biomedical research in other federal agencyes200

Medical schools and hospitals204

International biomedical research and development205

Industry involvement in biomedical r&d206

Industry and biotechnology206

10 Energy science and technology209

Background209

Organization of federal energy r&d212

Current programmes of the Department of Energy213

Solar and other renewables213

Nuclear energy217

Magnetic fusion217

Fossil energy r&d218

Energy conservation218

Other r&d areas218

National laboratories219

Energy r&d in other federal agencies220

The synthetic Fuels Corporation220

Energy r&d in Industry221

Issues and outlook222

11 Environmental science and technology225

Introduction225

The role of the federal government226

The role of the Environmental Protection Agency227

Other agencies231

The expanding role of the private sector236

Trends and issues239

12 Aerospace science and technology243

Space research from sputnik to the shuttle243

Space research in NASA245

Manned space exploration245

Planetary/space science245

Space applications249

Industry-university ties251

National space policy and plans for the future252

Trends253

Aeronautical research254

Role of NACA/NASA255

Recent policy decisions258

13 Defence science and technology261

Overview: defence r&d in perspective261

The US military establishment261

The importance of r&d to defence policy262

Historical development of defence r&d263

Difficulties and limitations of analyzing defence r&d263

Major features of defence r&d programmes264

Statistical overview264

Examples of defence r&d programmes266

The strategic Defence Initiative: a special note270

The defence r&d establishment271

DOD in-house laboratories271

The defence Industry275

DOD and the universities276

DOD contract research centers277

Issues and questions278

Increasing costs278

R&D and defence policy278

Defence r&d and the science community279

Arms control and r&d279

14 Basic research in the physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering281

Overview281

Physics283

Astronomy286

Chemistry289

Materials science291

Oceanographic and atmospheric sciences292

Mathematics and computer research294

Engineering research297

15 The social and behavioural sciences301

Relative newcomers301

Government support disputed303

The federal role303

Federal funding for social and behavioural science research 1980-82303

Major agencies305

Universities309

Social and behavioural science organizations312

Trends and issues312

16 Associations, societies and academies in science, engineering and higher education317

Historical development of professional societies in the United States317

The National Academies and associated organizations318

Overview318

National Academy of Sciences319

National Academy of Engineering319

Institute of Medicine320

National Research Council320

Joint activities of the Academies321

General scientific and engineering associations321

American Association for the Advancement of Science321

American Association of Engineering Societies323

Social Science Research Council324

State academies of science324

Disciplinary societies325

American Chemical Society326

American Psychological Association326

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers326

National Society of Professional Engineers327

Higher education organizations327

Association of American Universities328

National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges328

American Association of State Colleges and Universities328

Association of American Medical Colleges329

Other organizations329

Recent developments330

17 International cooperation in science and technology333

Overview333

International agreements and organizations334

Multilateral agreements335

Bilateral agreements335

International organizations337

Institutional structure of US involvement338

Governmental organizations338

Non-governmental organizations340

International fellowship and training programmes340

NSF programmes341

Other programmes341

Specialized science and technology programmes342

Agriculture342

Space activities343

Energy344

Telecommunications344

Other areas346

Controls on the export of technical data and commodities346

Statutory authorities347

Case study: export controls on biotechnology348

Trends in international cooperation in science and technology349

18 Scientific and technical information351

Overview351

Scientific and technical publications352

Databases354

Issues356

Appendix 1: Sources of information on US science and technology359

Appendix 2: Federal research establishments365

Index of establishments383

Subject Index396