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1 On Knowing a Language1

Introduction1

Defining Language Proficiency2

Proficiency and Language Acquisition Theory19

Some Research Findings about Oral Proficiency21

Issues in Language Proficiency Assessment:Caveats,Clarifications,and New Directions27

Defining the Content of Instruction:The Standards for Foreign Language Learning34

Summary:On Knowing a Language41

Activities for Review and Discussion42

References44

2 On Learning a Language51

Introduction51

Exploring Theories of Language Learning52

The Role of Individual Learner Factors in Second-Language Learning75

Relating Theory to Practice:Some Considerations77

Summary:On Learning a Language80

Activities for Review and Discussion80

References81

3 On Teaching a Language86

Orienting Instruction toward Proficiency89

The Proficiency Orientation of Existing Methodologies:A Preliminary Appraisal105

Three "Traditional" Methods106

Reactions to Audiolingualism:Two Mentalist Perspectives113

A Functional Approach:Communicative Language Teaching116

Modern Adaptations of the Direct Method118

Humanistic Approaches to Language Teaching123

Summary:On Teaching a Language129

Activities for Review and Discussion130

References131

4 The Role of Context in Comprehension and Learning139

The Importance of Context and Background Knowledge in the Comprehension Process:Some Theoretical Considerations144

Research on the Role of Context in Comprehension149

The Role of Computers in Providing Richer Contexts for Language Learning163

Integrating Language and Content:Immersion and Content-Based Instruction164

Summary:The Role of Context in Comprehension and Learning169

Activities for Review and Discussion169

References170

5 A Proficiency-Oriented Approach to Listening and Reading176

A Rationale for Teaching Listening and Reading176

Similarities in Listening and Reading179

Differences between Spoken and Written Discourse180

Integrating Listening,Reading,and the Productive Skills:The Vision of the Standards for Foreign Language Learning182

Teaching Listening Comprehension184

Sample Formats for Listening Comprehension192

Teaching Reading Comprehension203

Sample Formats for Reading Comprehension210

Summary:A Proficiency-Oriented Approach to Listening and Reading225

Activities for Review and Discussion225

References226

6 Developing Oral Proficiency230

The Nature of Interlanguage232

Planning Instruction for the Development of Oral Proficiency235

Responding to the Learner258

Summary:Developing Oral Proficiency271

Activities for Review and Discussion272

References273

7 Becoming Proficient in Writing280

Approaches to Teaching Writing at the Lower Levels of Proficiency283

Expressive Writing at the Intermediate and Advanced Levels:Approaches to Teaching the Composing Process310

Summary:Becoming Proficient in Writing337

Activities for Review and Discussion338

References338

8 Teaching for Cultural Understanding345

Introduction345

Problems in the Teaching of Culture346

Definitions,Models,Inventories,and Frameworks:Capturing the Essence of"Culture"349

Strategies for Teaching Culture358

Summary:Teaching for Cultural Understanding384

Activities for Review and Discussion384

References385

9 Classroom Testing390

Introduction390

The Case for Hybrid Classroom Tests396

Characteristics of Test Items and Item Types398

Listening Comprehension Formats401

Reading Comprehension Formats408

Writing and Mixed-Skills Formats414

Guidelines for Creating Contextualized Paper-and-Pencil Tests429

Testing Oral Skills431

Summary:Classroom Testing447

Appendix448

Activities for Review and Discussion451

References451

EPilogue Planning Instruction for the Proficiency-Oriented Classroom456

Setting Goals for a Proficiency-Oriented Program457

Guidelines for Planning Lessons462

Increasing Focus on Students' Interests464

In Conclusion465

Activities for Review and Discussion466

References466

Appendix A ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines—Speaking Revised 1999469

Appendix B Sample Foreign Language Media Evaluation Criteria477

Appendix C Samples of Error Coding Procedures for Written Work485

Text Permissions489

Index490