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Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 Aluminum4

1.2 Magnesium and Beryllium6

1.3 Titanium7

1.4 High Strength Steels8

1.5 Superalloys8

1.6 Composites9

1.7 Adhesive Bonding and Integrally Cocured Structure10

1.8 Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites11

1.9 Assembly12

Summary12

References13

Chapter 2 Aluminum15

2.1 Metallurgical Considerations17

2.2 Aluminum Alloy Designation23

2.3 Aluminum Alloys25

2.4 Melting and Primary Fabrication31

2.4.1 Rolling Plate and Sheet33

2.4.2 Extrusion37

2.5 Heat Treating37

2.5.1 Solution Heat Treating and Aging37

2.5.2 Annealing42

2.6 Forging43

2.7 Forming46

2.7.1 Blanking and Piercing47

2.7.2 Brake Forming48

2.7.3 Deep Drawing49

2.7.4 Stretch Forming50

2.7.5 Rubber Pad Forming51

2.7.6 Superplastic Forming51

2.8 Casting57

2.8.1 Sand Casting60

2.8.2 Plaster and Shell Molding62

2.8.3 Permanent Mold Casting63

2.8.4 Die Casting64

2.8.5 Investment Casting64

2.8.6 Evaporative Pattern Casting64

2.8.7 Casting Heat Treatment65

2.8.8 Casting Properties65

2.9 Machining66

2.9.1 High Speed Machining68

2.9.2 Chemical Milling76

2.10 Joining76

2.11 Welding77

2.11.1 Gas Metal and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding78

2.11.2 Plasma Arc Welding80

2.11.3 Laser Welding81

2.11.4 Resistance Welding82

2.11.5 Friction Stir Welding83

2.12 Chemical Finishing88

Summary89

Recommended Reading90

References90

Chapter 3 Magnesium and Beryllium93

MAGNESIUM95

3.1 Magnesium Metallurgical Considerations95

3.2 Magnesium Alloys97

3.2.1 Wrought Magnesium Alloys97

3.2.2 Magnesium Casting Alloys99

3.3 Magnesium Fabrication103

3.3.1 Magnesium Forming103

3.3.2 Magnesium Sand Casting104

3.3.3 Magnesium Heat Treating106

3.3.4 Magnesium Machining107

3.3.5 Magnesium Joining107

3.4 Magnesium Corrosion Protection108

BERYLLIUM109

3.5 Beryllium Metallurgical Considerations109

3.6 Beryllium Alloys110

3.7 Beryllium Powder Metallurgy111

3.8 Beryllium Fabrication114

3.8.1 Beryllium Forming114

3.8.2 Beryllium Machining115

3.8.3 Beryllium Joining116

3.9 Aluminum-Beryllium Alloys116

Summary116

References118

Chapter 4 Titanium119

4.1 Metallurgical Considerations120

4.2 Titanium Alloys126

4.2.1 Commercially Pure Titanium126

4.2.2 Alpha and Near-Alpha Alloys127

4.2.3 Alpha-Beta Alloys128

4.2.4 Beta Alloys131

4.3 Melting and Primary Fabrication132

4.4 Forging137

4.5 Directed Metal Deposition140

4.6 Forming143

4.7 Superplastic Forming145

4.8 Heat Treating150

4.8.1 Stress Relief151

4.8.2 Annealing152

4.8.3 Solution Treating and Aging152

4.9 Investment Casting154

4.10 Machining158

4.11 Joining165

4.12 Welding165

4.13 Brazing170

Summary171

Recommended Reading172

References173

Chapter 5 High Strength Steels175

5.1 Metallurgical Considerations176

5.2 Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels182

5.3 Fabrication of Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels186

5.4 Heat Treatment of Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels191

5.5 High Fracture Toughness Steels198

5.6 Maraging Steels200

5.7 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels202

Summary207

Recommended Reading207

References208

Chapter 6 Superalloys211

6.1 Metallurgical Considerations213

6.2 Commercial Superalloys219

6.2.1 Nickel Based Superalloys221

6.2.2 Iron-Nickel Based Superalloys224

6.2.3 Cobalt Based Superalloys225

6.3 Melting and Primary Fabrication225

6.4 Powder Metallurgy228

6.4.1 Powder Metallurgy Forged Alloys228

6.4.2 Mechanical Alloying230

6.5 Forging232

6.6 Forming236

6.7 Investment casting238

6.7.1 Polycrystalline Casting239

6.7.2 Directional Solidification (DS) Casting240

6.7.3 Single Crystal (SC) Casting242

6.8 Heat Treatment243

6.8.1 Solution Strengthened Superalloys243

6.8.2 Precipitation Strengthened Nickel Base Superalloys244

6.8.3 Precipitation Strengthened Iron-Nickel Base Superalloys246

6.8.4 Cast Superalloy Heat Treatment247

6.9 Machining248

6.9.1 Turning251

6.9.2 Milling252

6.9.3 Grinding254

6.10 Joining256

6.10.1 Welding256

6.10.2 Brazing260

6.10.3 Transient Liquid Phase (TLP) Bonding263

6.11 Coating Technology264

6.11.1 Diffusion Coatings264

6.11.2 Overlay Coatings265

6.11.3 Thermal Barrier Coatings266

Summary266

Recommended Reading270

References270

Chapter 7 Polymer Matrix Composites273

7.1 Materials276

7.1.1 Fibers277

7.1.2 Matrices280

7.1.3 Product Forms282

7.2 Fabrication Processes286

7.3 Cure Tooling286

7.3.1 Tooling Considerations286

7.4 Ply Collation291

7.4.1 Manual Lay-up291

7.4.2 Flat Ply Collation and Vacuum Forming294

7.5 Automated Tape Laying295

7.6 Filament Winding298

7.7 Fiber Placement304

7.8 Vacuum Bagging307

7.9 Curing311

7.9.1 Curing of Epoxy Composites313

7.9.2 Theory of Void Formation314

7.9.3 Hydrostatic Resin Pressure318

7.9.4 Resin and Prepreg Variables322

7.9.5 Condensation Curing Systems323

7.9.6 Residual Curing Stresses324

7.10 Liquid Molding327

7.11 Preform Technology328

7.11.1 Fibers329

7.11.2 Woven Fabrics330

7.11.3 Multiaxial Warp Knits331

7.11.4 Stitching331

7.11.5 Braiding333

7.11.6 Preform Handling334

7.12 Resin Injection336

7.12.1 RTM Curing338

7.12.2 RTM Tooling338

7.13 Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding339

7.14 Pultrusion341

7.15 Thermoplastic Composites343

7.15.1 Thermoplastic Consolidation345

7.15.2 Thermoforming351

7.15.3 Thermoplastic Joining355

7.16 Trimming and Machining Operations361

Summary364

Recommended Reading366

References366

Chapter 8 Adhesive Bonding and Integrally Cocured Structure369

8.1 Advantages of Adhesive Bonding370

8.2 Disadvantages of Adhesive Bonding371

8.3 Theory of Adhesion372

8.4 Joint Design372

8.5 Adhesive Testing377

8.6 Surface Preparation378

8.7 Epoxy Adhesives383

8.7.1 Two-part Room Temperature Curing Epoxy Liquid and Paste Adhesives384

8.7.2 Epoxy Film Adhesives385

8.8 Bonding Procedures385

8.8.1 Prekitting of Adherends385

8.8.2 Prefit Evaluation386

8.8.3 Adhesive Application387

8.8.4 Bond Line Thickness Control388

8.8.5 Bonding388

8.9 Sandwich Structures390

8.9.1 Honeycomb Core393

8.9.2 Honeycomb Processing399

8.9.3 Balsa Wood403

8.9.4 Foam Cores404

8.9.5 Syntactic Core406

8.9.6 Inspection407

8.10 Integrally Cocured Structure408

Summary415

Recommended Reading416

References417

Chapter 9 Metal Matrix Composites419

9.1 Discontinuously Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites424

9.2 Stir Casting424

9.3 Slurry Casting - Compocasting427

9.4 Liquid Metal Infiltration (Squeeze Casting)427

9.5 Pressure Infiltration Casting430

9.6 Spray Deposition431

9.7 Powder Metallurgy Methods432

9.8 Secondary Processing of Discontinuous MMCs434

9.9 Continuous Fiber Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites435

9.10 Continuous Fiber Reinforced Titanium Matrix Composites440

9.11 Secondary Fabrication of Titanium Matrix Composites447

9.12 Fiber Metal Laminates452

Summary455

Recommended Reading456

References456

Chapter 10 Ceramic Matrix Composites459

10.1 Reinforcements464

10.2 Matrix Materials467

10.3 Interfacial Coatings470

10.4 Fiber Architectures471

10.5 Fabrication Methods472

10.6 Powder Processing472

10.7 Slurry Infiltration and Consolidation474

10.8 Polymer Infiltration and Pyrolysis (PIP)476

10.9 Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI)482

10.10 Directed Metal Oxidation (DMO)487

10.11 Liquid Silicon Infiltration (LSI)488

Summary490

Recommended Reading492

References492

Chapter 11 Structural Assembly495

11.1 Framing496

11.2 Shimming498

11.3 Hole Drilling499

11.3.1 Manual Drilling500

11.3.2 Power Feed Drilling504

11.3.3 Automated Drilling505

11.3.4 Automated Riveting Equipment508

11.3.5 Drill Bit Geometries509

11.3.6 Reaming514

11.3.7 Countersinking514

11.4 Fastener Selection and Installation515

11.4.1 Special Considerations for Composite Joints518

11.4.2 Solid Rivets520

11.4.3 Pin and Collar Fasteners523

11.4.4 Bolts and Nuts525

11.4.5 Blind Fasteners527

11.4.6 Fatigue Improvement and Interference Fit Fasteners528

11.5 Sealing533

11.6 Painting534

Summary535

Recommended Reading537

References537

Appendix A Metric Conversions539

Appendix B A Brief Review of Materials Fundamentals541

B.l Materials542

B.2 Metallic Structure543

B.3 Ceramics555

B.4 Polymers556

B.5 Composites562

Recommended Reading565

References566

Appendix C Mechanical and Environmental Properties567

C.l Static Strength Properties568

C.2 Failure Modes570

C.3 Fracture Toughness572

C.4 Fatigue576

C.5 Creep and Stress Rupture581

C.6 Corrosion582

C.7 Hydrogen Embrittlement584

C.8 Stress Corrosion Cracking586

C.9 High Temperature Oxidation and Corrosion587

C.10 Polymeric Matrix Composite Degradation587

Recommended Reading591

References591

Index593