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PART Ⅰ FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE1

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of International Criminal Law3

1.1 Introduction3

1.2 Sources of International Law and Individual Legal Personality4

1.3 The International Criminalisation Process8

1.4 Enforcement of International Criminal Law12

1.5 State Criminality16

1.6 International Criminal Law and Human Rights19

1.7 The Principle of Legality21

1.7.1 Specificity21

1.7.2 Non-Retroactivity23

1.7.3 Prohibition of Analogy26

1.7.4 The Favor Rei Rule27

1.8 Statutes of Limitation for International Crimes28

1.9 Justificatory Bases for International Trials and the Quest for Legitimacy29

1.10 Lawfare: International Law as a Weapon for the 'Weak'32

Chapter 2 The Subjective and Objective Elements of International Crimes35

2.1 General Principles of the Objective Element35

2.2 General Principles of the Subjective Element38

2.3 Intent or Dolus40

2.4 Recklessness and Dolus Eventualis43

2.5 Negligence45

2.6 Special Intent47

2.7 The Principle of Transferred Fault and of Mistaken Object49

Chapter 3 Modes of Liability and Criminal Participation51

3.1 The Legal Nature of Perpetration and Participation51

3.2 Joint Criminal Enterprise53

3.3 Commission through Another Person or Indirect Perpetration59

3.4 Co-Perpetration60

3.5 Conspiracy63

3.6 Attempts66

3.7 Aiding and Abetting67

3.8 Ordering70

3.9 Planning and Preparation73

3.10 Instigation74

3.11 International Corporate Criminal Liability76

Chapter 4 The Law of Command Responsibility79

4.1 The Legal Nature of Command Responsibility79

4.2 The Superior-Subordinate Relationship82

4.3 The Position of Civilian Commanders86

4.4 The Mental Element88

4.5 The Duty to Prevent or Punish93

4.6 The Question of Successor Superior Responsibility95

PART Ⅱ DEFENCES AND EXCUSES FROM CRIMINAL LIABILITY97

Chapter 5 Defences in International Criminal Law99

5.1 Theoretical Underpinnings of Criminal Defences99

5.2 Is there a Place for Domestic Defences in the ICC Statute?102

5.3 Superior Orders104

5.4 Duress and Necessity108

5.5 Self-Defence112

5.6 Intoxication114

5.7 Mistake of Fact or Mistake of Law115

5.8 Ignorance of Law116

5.9 Mental Incapacity119

5.10 Tu Quoque121

Chapter 6 Immunities from Criminal Jurisdiction122

6.1 General Conception of Immunity in International Law122

6.2 Act of State Doctrine125

6.3 Immunity from Criminal Jurisdiction127

6.3.1 The Application of Functional and Personal Immunity in Practice128

6.4 Diplomatic and Consular Immunities131

6.5 Immunity from International Criminal Jurisdiction133

PART Ⅲ SUBSTANTIVE CRIMES135

Chapter 7 War Crimes and Grave Breaches137

7.1 Grave Breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions137

7.1.1 Classification of Armed Conflicts140

7.1.2 Types of War Crimes in International Armed Conflicts141

7.2 War Crimes against Protected Persons and of Property in the Hands of the Adversary143

7.2.1 Wilful Killing143

7.2.2 Torture as a War Crime144

7.2.3 Inhuman and Cruel Treatment145

7.2.4 Biological Experiments146

7.2.5 Wilfully Causing Great Suffering or Serious Injury147

7.2.6 Extensive Destruction and Appropriation of Property148

7.2.7 Pillage149

7.2.8 Compelling Prisoners of War or Protected Persons to Serve with the Hostile Power150

7.2.9 Wilfully Depriving Protected Persons of Rights to Fair and Regular Trial151

7.2.10 Unlawful Deportation or Transfer of Protected Persons152

7.2.11 Transferring Own Population into Occupied Territory153

7.2.12 Unlawful Confinement154

7.2.13 Taking of Hostages155

7.2.14 War Crime of Depriving the Nationals of the Hostile Party of Rights or Actions156

7.2.15 Using, Conscripting or Enlisting Children156

7.3 Sexual Crimes159

7.3.1 Outrages upon Personal Dignity159

7.3.2 Rape and Sexual Violence160

7.3.3 Sexual Slavery163

7.3.4 Enforced Prostitution164

7.3.5 Forced Pregnancy165

7.3.6 Enforced Sterilisation165

7.4 Prohibited Targeting Crimes166

7.5 War Crimes against Combatants and Hors de Combat173

7.6 War Crimes related to the Use of Illegal or Prohibited Weapons175

7.7 Violations of the Laws or Customs of War in Internal Armed Conflicts178

7.7.1 Specific Internal Armed Conflict War Crimes181

7.7.2 The War Crime of Inflicting Collective Punishments183

Chapter 8 Crimes Against Humanity185

8.1 Origins of the Concept185

8.2 The Fundamental Elements of the Offence and the Meaning of 'Attack'188

8.2.1 The Underlying Offences190

8.3 The Widespread or Systematic Element196

8.4 The Nature of the Targeted 'Civilian Population'198

8.5 The Subjective Element200

8.6 Crimes Against Humanity in the ICC Statute201

Chapter 9 The Crime of Genocide203

9.1 Early Perceptions and the Duties of States to Prevent and Punish Genocide203

9.2 Destruction of the Group 'in Whole or in Part'206

9.3 The Specific Intent {Dolus Specialis) Required for Genocide208

9.4 Membership of the Targeted Group212

9.5 Acts Constituting Genocide215

9.6 The Problematic Nature of Aiding and Abetting Genocide217

9.7 Incitement to Commit Genocide219

Chapter 10 Offences Against the Person222

10.1 Introduction222

10.2 Slavery and Related Practices222

10.2.1 The Slave Trade and Similar Institutions224

10.3 Torture as a Crime under International Law230

10.3.1 Defining Torture231

10.3.2 The 'Public Official' Requirement of Torture234

10.4 Apartheid235

10.5 Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances237

Chapter 11 Transnational Crimes240

11.1 Introduction240

11.2 Transnational Organised Crime241

11.2.1 Additional CATOC Protocols: Migrant Smuggling and Illicit Traffic in Firearms244

11.3 Money Laundering246

11.4 Drug-Trafficking as a Crime under International Law249

11.5 Bribery of Foreign Public Officials252

11.6 International Postal Offences257

Chapter 12 Terrorism260

12.1 Introduction260

12.2 The Thematic Evolution of Terrorism in International Law263

12.3 The Specialised Anti-Terrorist Conventions264

12.3.1 Offences Against Civil Aviation264

12.3.2 Hostage Taking and Attacks Against Internationally Protected Persons270

12.3.3 Terrorist Bombings and Nuclear Terrorism272

12.3.4 Terrorist Financing and Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001)275

12.4 State-Sponsored Terrorism279

12.5 Terrorism and National Liberation Movements281

12.6 Organised Crime and its Relation to Terrorism284

Chapter 13 The Crime of Aggression287

13.1 Introduction287

13.2 Aggression under Customary Law288

13.3 Aggression in the ICC Statute291

Chapter 14 International Criminal Law of the Sea295

14.1 Brief Introduction to the Law of the Sea295

14.2 Piracy Jure Gentium297

14.2.1 Definition of Piracy under International Law and its Difference from Armed Robbery at Sea298

14.2.2 Mutiny and other Violence against Ships not amounting to Piracy302

14.2.3 Mechanisms for the Prevention and Eradication of Piracy303

14.3 Maritime Terrorism305

14.4 Offences Against Submarine Cables and Pipelines307

14.5 Unauthorised Broadcasting from the High Seas310

14.6 Ship-Source Pollution312

14.7 Criminal Liability for Fisheries-related Violations on the High Seas314

14.8 Enforcement on the High Seas316

14.9 The Right of Hot Pursuit321

14.9.1 Commencement and Continuous Nature of Hot Pursuit323

14.9.2 The Doctrine of Constructive Presence324

PART Ⅳ ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW327

Chapter 15 The Exercise of Criminal Jurisdiction329

15.1 International Law Principles on Criminal Jurisdiction329

15.2 Territorial Jurisdiction332

15.2.1 Subjective Territoriality333

15.2.2 Objective Territoriality335

15.2.3 The Ambit of National Territory336

15.3 The Active Personality Principle338

15.4 The Passive Personality Principle340

15.5 The Protective Principle342

15.6 Universal Jurisdiction344

15.7 Jurisdiction with Respect to Crimes Against Civil Aviation349

15.8 Foreign and Multinational Armed Forces Abroad350

15.9 International Criminal Jurisdiction352

Chapter 16 International Cooperation in Criminal Matters355

16.1 Introduction355

16.2 Mutual Legal Assistance Stricto Sensu355

16.3 Informal Assistance Arrangements361

16.4 Recognition of Foreign Penal Judgments: The Principle of Mutual Recognition362

16.5 International Prisoner Transfers363

16.6 Horizontal and Vertical Cooperation between States and International Organisations366

16.6.1 Cooperation under the ICTY/ICTR Regime367

16.6.2 The Vertical Regime of the ICC370

16.6.3 Cooperation under the Statutes of Hybrid Tribunals372

16.7 International Tribunal Requests to International Organisations and Preservation of Confidentiality372

16.8 Extradition373

16.8.1 Human Rights and Diplomatic Assurances376

16.8.2 The Principle of 'Either Prosecute or Extradite'378

16.8.3 The European Arrest Warrant379

16.9 The Effects of Extraterritorial Abduction and Illegal Rendition on Criminal Proceedings380

Chapter 17 The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Justice384

17.1 The Historical Origins of International Criminality384

17.2 The Background to the Establishment of the International Military Tribunals388

17.2.1 The Law and Jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at Nuremberg389

17.3 The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE)397

17.4 The International Law Commission's Role in the Post-Nuremberg Era400

Chapter 18 The International Criminal Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda403

18.1 Introduction403

18.2 Formative Years of the Ad Hoc Tribunals406

18.3 Jurisdiction of the ICTY and ICTR412

18.4 Enforcement Capacity of the Tribunals414

18.5 Rights of the Accused and Abuse of Process417

18.6 Dissolution of the Tribunals and their Completion Strategy421

Chapter 19 The Permanent International Criminal Court423

19.1 Introduction423

19.2 Jurisdiction and the ICC Triggering Mechanism426

19.3 The Principle of Complementarity and Security Council Referrals429

19.4 Deferrals by the Security Council and Deferrals in 'the Interests of Justice'432

19.5 Subject Matter Jurisdiction435

19.6 International Cooperation and Judicial Assistance436

19.7 Impunity Agreements in Contravention of Article 98 ICC Statute439

19.8 Reservations and Amendments to the Statute440

19.9 Reparation of Victims and the ICC Trust Fund441

Chapter 20 Internationalised Domestic Criminal Tribunals, Truth Commissions and Amnesties444

20.1 Introduction444

20.2 The Sierra Leone Special Court445

20.2.1 The Fate of Amnesties and Immunities448

20.3 The East Timor Special Panels450

20.4 UNMIK and the Kosovar Judicial System453

20.5 The Cambodian Extraordinary Chambers455

20.6 The Iraqi Special Tribunal for Crimes Against Humanity458

20.7 Terrorist-related Tribunals461

20.7.1 The Lockerbie Tribunal461

20.7.2 The Special Tribunal for Lebanon464

20.8 National Truth Commissions and Amnesties467

PART Ⅴ EVIDENCE AND INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE471

Chapter 21 Evidence before International Criminal Courts and Tribunals&By Caroline Buisman473

21.1 Introduction473

21.2 General Evidentiary Principles477

21.3 Admissibility480

21.3.1 Rules and Principles of Admissibility480

21.3.2 Relevant Definitions of Rule 89(C) Terminology483

21.3.2.1 Relevance483

21.3.2.2 Probative Value484

21.3.2.3 Probative Value Versus Prejudice485

21.3.2.4 Reliability486

21.4 Principle of Orality487

21.4.1 Admissibility of Written Statements in lieu of Oral Testimony491

21.4.2 Further Steps to Admit Written Statements in lieu of Oral Testimony494

21.4.3 Prior Inconsistent Statements498

21.4.4 Admissibility of Suspect Interviews500

21.4.5 Admissibility of Suspect Interviews Against a Co-Accused500

21.5 Documentary Evidence503

21.6 Hearsay Evidence508

21.7 The Investigator's Report512

21.8 Expert Evidence514

21.9 Character Evidence522

21.10 Exclusion of Improperly Obtained Evidence524

21.11 Determination of Weight of Evidence531

21.11.1 General Principles531

21.11.2 Corroboration534

21.11.3 Documentary Evidence536

21.11.4 Hearsay Evidence538

21.11.5 Viva Voce Testimony540

21.11.6 Prior Statements543

21.11.7 Expert Evidence544

21.12 Free System of Proof545

Chapter 22 The Status of Victims in International Criminal Law and Criminal Proceedings548

22.1 The Legal Protection of Victims in International Law548

22.2 The Physical Protection of Victims of International Crimes550

22.2.1 'Victims' of No Crimes at All!553

22.3 Forms of Reparation556

22.4 Victim Participation in International Criminal Proceedings557

22.4.1 The ICC558

22.4.2 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)561

Index565