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1. Introduction1

1. The margin of appreciation in the ECtHR, IACtHR, and the UN HRC3

2. Book structure6

3. Approach10

PART Ⅰ-HEORY: CONCEPTUALIZING AND JUSTIFYING THE MARGIN OF APPRECIATION15

2. Deference: Reasoning Differently on the Basis of External Factors17

1. Introduction17

2. Assigning weight differently on the basis of external factors18

3. Deference on the basis of external factors21

4. Types of reason for deference24

a. Relationships and comity24

b. Epistemic limitations and expertise25

5. Cases that demonstrate this approach in practice26

a. European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)27

b. Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)31

c. United Nations Human Rights Committee (UN HRC)34

6. Conclusion37

3. Different Approaches to Deference in International Human Rights Law38

1. Introduction38

2. The margin of appreciation and relativism about human rights40

a. The meaning of universality in moral discourse42

b. Moral universality and the margin of appreciation43

c. Legal rights that implement moral rights44

d. Legal orders and comparisons45

e. The margin of appreciation and relativism in practice47

f. Summary49

3. Critiques of deference50

a. The 'one right answer' thesis50

b. Harmonization and integration53

c. Supporting case law55

d. Summary57

4. Justifying the margin of appreciation58

a. The Tribunals as forums for the contestation of sovereignty58

b. Deference and subsidiarity61

c. Views of commentators62

d. The practice of the Tribunals63

e. Summary65

5. Conclusion66

PART Ⅱ-PRACTICE: FACTORS AFFECTING THE MARGIN OF APPRECIATION67

4. Democracy and Participation69

1. Introduction69

2. Theories of judicial review and the justification of the margin of appreciation for democratic reasons70

3. The contribution of the Tribunals to theories of democracy in international law73

4. Democratic legitimacy as an external factor for the margin of appreciation in practice75

a. European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)75

b. Inter-American Court of Human Rights (lACtHR)79

c. United Nations Human Rights Committee (UN HRC)80

d. Giving state legislatures time to change the law81

5. Cases in which democratic legitimacy is a factor in favour of granting the state a margin of appreciation83

a. Conflicting private rights: testing the choice of the legislature83

b. Conflicting personal-public freedoms: questions of moral or political controversy86

6. Cases in which democratic legitimacy issues heighten scrutiny90

a. Democratic rights: the example of electoral participation90

b. Minorities and vulnerable groups93

c. A lack of societal/parliamentary debate96

d. The application of legal formulae where the provisions are too broad-brush98

e. Other rule of law concerns100

7. Conclusion101

5. Treaty Interpretation, Current State Practice, and Other International Law Influences on the Practice of Deference103

1. Introduction103

2. State consent and the legality of international agreements103

3. Treaty interpretation: Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) and the special status of human rights treaties106

a. Original intent or 'evolutive' interpretation108

b. Treaty provisions with autonomous meanings110

c. Summary112

4. Other approaches to the role of current state practice113

5. Current state practice as an external factor affecting the margin of appreciation in practice116

a. Lack of consensus increases deference116

b. Current state practice in the applicant's favour heightens scrutiny120

c. Current state practice in the state's favour increases deference124

d. Current state practice is not calculated with precision127

6. Deference to international norms, institutions, and organizations130

a. Decisions of other international human rights tribunals131

b. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)135

c. Resolutions of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)137

d. Other international law norms141

7. Conclusion143

6. Expertise and Competence145

1. Introduction145

2. Epistemology, expertise, and judicial responsibility146

3. Expertise as a factor for the margin of appreciation in practice148

a. European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)148

b. Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)150

c. United Nations Human Rights Committee (UN HRC)152

4. Types of expertise where there are commonly stronger grounds for a margin of appreciation153

a. National security153

b. Child protection159

c. Health care162

d. Education163

e. Policing and civil service164

f. Economic matters164

5. Heightened scrutiny where the Tribunals have expertise167

a. Legal procedures167

b. Reasonable time171

c. Legal interpretation172

6. Conclusion: expertise and subsidiarity174

PART Ⅲ-THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS ADJUDICATION: THE MARGIN OF APPRECIATION AND PROPORTIONALITY175

7. Proportionality: Determining Rights177

1. Introduction177

2. The origins of proportionality178

3. Theories of rights: balancing, trumps, and human rights determinations181

a. Interest-based theories182

b. Rights as trumps (reason-blocking theories)189

4. The margin of appreciation and proportionality in human rights adjudication192

a. The conceptual connection between the margin of appreciation and proportionality194

b. Cases that demonstrate the connection between the margin of appreciation and proportionality196

5. Conclusion: the structure of decision-making in human rights law198

8. Nature of the Right and Type of Case200

1. Introduction200

2. How the 'nature of the right' or 'type of case' may affect the margin of appreciation or proportionality201

3. The nature of the right204

a. Absolute rights: life and freedom from torture204

b. Strong rights: fair trial, liberty, and derogations210

c. Qualified rights: privacy, and freedoms of religion, association, speech, and non-discrimination211

d. Weak rights: property, education, and free elections215

4. Types of case216

5. Conclusion217

9. Concluding Remarks219

Bibliography226

Index231