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1 Introductionto Wireless Communication Systems1

1.1 Evolutionof MobileRadio Communications1

1.2 Mobile Radiotelephonyinthe U.S4

1.3 Mobile Radio Systems Aroundthe World6

1.4 Examplesof Wireless Communication Systems9

1.4.1 Paging Systems11

1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems12

1.4.3 Cellular Telephone Systems13

1.4.3.1 How a Cellular Telephone Callis Made15

1.4.4 Comparison of Common Wireless Communication Systems18

1.5 Trendsin Cellular Radioand Personal Communications20

1.6 Problems22

2 Modern Wireless Communication Systems25

2.1 Second Generation（2G）Cellular Networks26

2.1.1 Evolution to2.5GWireless Networks29

2.1.2 Evolution for2.5GTDMA Standards30

2.1.2.1 HSCSD for2.5GGSM30

2.1.2.2 GPRS for2.5GGSM and IS-13631

2.1.2.3 EDGE for2.5GGSM and IS-13633

2.1.3 IS-95B for2.5GCDMA34

2.2 Third Generation（3G）WirelessNetworks34

2.2.1 3G W-CDMA（UMTS）37

2.2.2 3G cdma200038

2.2.3 3G TD-SCDMA39

2.3 Wireless Local Loop（WLL）and LMDS40

2.4 Wireless Local Area Networks（WLANs）46

2.5 Bluetooth and Personal Area Networks（PANs）52

2.6 Summary54

2.7 Problems55

3 The Cellular Concept—System Design Fundamentals57

3.1 Introduction57

3.2 Frequency Reuse58

3.3 Channel Assignment Strategies62

3.4 Handoff Strategies62

3.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs65

3.4.2 Practical Handoff Considerations66

3.5 Interference and System Capacity67

3.5.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity68

3.5.2 Channel Planning for Wireless Systems72

3.5.3 Adjacent Channel Interference74

3.5.4 Power Control for Reducing Interference76

3.6 Trunkingand Gradeof Service77

3.7 Improving Coverage&Capacityin Cellular Systems86

3.7.1 CellSplitting86

3.7.2 Sectoring90

3.7.3 Repeaters for Range Extension93

3.7.4 AMicrocell Zone Concept93

3.8 Summary96

3.9 Problems97

4 Mobile Radio Propagation:Large-Scale PathLoss105

4.1 Introductionto Radio Wave Propagation105

4.2 Free Space Propagation Model107

4.3 Relating Powerto Electric Field110

4.4 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms113

4.5 Reflection114

4.5.1 Reflection from Dielectrics114

4.5.2 BrewsterAngle119

4.5.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors120

4.6 Ground Reflection（Two-Ray）Model120

4.7 Diffraction126

4.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry126

4.7.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model129

4.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction134

4.8 Scattering135

4.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model136

4.9 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models138

4.9.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model138

4.9.2 Log-normal Shadowing139

4.9.3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area141

4.10 Outdoor Propagation Models145

4.10.1 Longley-Rice Model145

4.10.2 Durkin's Model—A Case Study146

4.10.3 Okumura Model150

4.10.4 Hata Model153

4.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model154

4.10.6 Walfisch and Bertoni Model155

4.10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model155

4.11 Indoor Propagation Models157

4.11.1 Partition Losses （same floor）157

4.11.2 Partition Losses between Floors160

4.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model161

4.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model161

4.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model163

4.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings166

4.13 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling167

4.14 Problems168

5 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and Multipath177

5.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation177

5.1.1 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading178

5.1.2 Doppler Shift179

5.2 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel181

5.2.1 Relationship Between Bandwidth and Received Power185

5.3 Small-Scale Multipath Measurements192

5.3.1 Direct RF Pulse System192

5.3.2 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding193

5.3.3 Frequency Domain Channel Sounding196

5.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels197

5.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters199

5.4.2 Coherence Bandwidth202

5.4.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time203

5.5 Types of Small-Scale Fading205

5.5.1 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread205

5.5.1.1 Flat fading205

5.5.1.2 Frequency Selective Fading207

5.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread208

5.5.2.1 Fast Fading208

5.5.2.2 Slow Fading209

5.6 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions210

5.6.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution210

5.6.2 Ricean Fading Distribution212

5.7 Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels214

5.7.1 Clarke's Model for Flat Fading214

5.7.1.1 Spectral Shape Due to Doppler Spread in Clarke's Model217

5.7.2 Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model220

5.7.3 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics223

5.7.4 Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model226

5.7.5 Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model227

5.7.6 SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor Statistical Models227

5.8 Theory of Multipath Shape Factors for Small-Scale Fading Wireless Channels229

5.8.1 Introduction to Shape Factors230

5.8.1.1 Multipath Shape Factors232

Angular Spread, A232

Angular Constriction, γ233

Azimuthal Direction of Maximum Fading, 9mnax233

5.8.1.2 Fading Rate Variance Relationships233

Complex Received Voltage, V（r）233

Received Power, P（r）234

Received Envelope, R（r）234

5.8.1.3 Comparison to Omnidirectional Propagation234

5.8.2 Examples of Fading Behavior236

5.8.2.1 Sector Channel Model236

5.8.2.2 Double Sector Channel Model239

5.8.2.3 Ricean Channel Model240

5.8.3 Second-Order Statistics Using Shape Factors240

5.8.3.1 Level-Crossing Rates and Average Fade Duration242

5.8.3.2 Spatial Autocovariance242

5.8.3.3 Coherence Distance243

5.8.4 Applying Shape Factors to Wideband Channels243

5.8.5 Revisiting Classical Channel Models with Shape Factors244

5.9 Summary247

5.10 Problems248

6 Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio255

6.1 Frequency Modulation vs.Amplitude Modulation256

6.2 Amplitude Modulation257

6.2.1 Single Sideband AM260

6.2.2 Pilot Tone SSB261

6.2.3 Demodulation of AM signals262

6.3 Angle Modulation264

6.3.1 Spectra and Bandwidth of FM Signals266

6.3.2 FM Modulation Methods267

6.3.3 FM Detection Techniques268

6.3.4 Tradeoff Between SNR and Bandwidth in an FM Signal276

6.4 Digital Modulation—an Overview277

6.4.1 Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation278

6.4.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals281

6.5 Line Coding282

6.6 Pulse Shaping Techniques282

6.6.1 Nyquist Criterion for ISI Cancellation282

6.6.2 Raised Cosine Rolloff Filter287

6.6.3 Gaussian Pulse-Shaping Filter290

6.7 Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals291

6.8 Linear Modulation Techniques294

6.8.1 Binary Phase Shift Keying （BPSK）295

6.8.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying （DPSK）298

6.8.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying （QPSK）300

6.8.4 QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques301

6.8.5 Offset QPSK303

6.8.6 π/4 QPSK305

6.8.7 π/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques305

6.8.8 π/4 QPSK Detection Techniques308

6.9 Constant Envelope Modulation311

6.9.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying312

6.9.2 Minimum Shift Keying （MSK）314

6.9.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying （GMSK）318

6.10 Combined Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation Techniques322

6.10.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying （MPSK）323

6.10.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation （QAM）325

6.10.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying （MFSK） and OFDM328

6.11 Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques329

6.11.1 Pseudo-Noise （PN） Sequences330

6.11.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum （DS-SS）331

6.11.3 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum （FH-SS）334

6.11.4 Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum335

6.11.5 Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum338

6.12 Modulation Performance in Fading and Multipath Channels339

6.12.1 Performance of Digital Modulation in Slow Flat-Fading Channels340

6.12.2 Digital Modulation in Frequency Selective Mobile Channels344

6.12.3 Performance of π/4 DQPSK in Fading and Interference346

6.13 Problems350

7 Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding355

7.1 Introduction355

7.2 Fundamentals of Equalization356

7.3 Training A Generic Adaptive Equalizer359

7.4 Equalizers in a Communications Receiver363

7.5 Survey of Equalization Techniques364

7.6 Linear Equalizers366

7.7 Nonlinear Equalization368

7.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization （DFE）369

7.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation （MLSE） Equalizer370

7.8 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization372

7.8.1 Zero Forcing Algorithm374

7.8.2 Least Mean Square Algorithm374

7.8.3 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm376

7.8.4 Summary of Algorithms379

7.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers380

7.10 Diversity Techniques380

7.10.1 Derivation of Selection Diversity Improvement381

7.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio Combining Improvement384

7.10.3 Practical Space Diversity Considerations385

7.10.3.1 Selection Diversity386

7.10.3.2 Feedback or Scanning Diversity386

7.10.3.3 Maximal Ratio Combining387

7.10.3.4 Equal Gain Combining387

7.10.4 Polarization Diversity387

7.10.5 Frequency Diversity390

7.10.6 Time Diversity390

7.11 RAKE Receiver391

7.12 Interleaving393

7.13 Fundamentals of Channel Coding394

7.14 Block Codes and Finite Fields395

7.14.1 Examples of Block Codes399

7.14.2 Case Study: Reed-Solomon Codes for CDPD400

7.14.2.1 Reed-Solomon Encoding401

7.14.2.2 Reed-Solomon Decoding404

7.15 Convolutional Codes407

7.15.1 Decoding of Convolutional Codes409

7.15.1.1 The Viterbi Algorithm409

7.15.1.2 Other Decoding Algorithms for Convolutional Codes410

7.16 Coding Gain411

7.17 Trellis Coded Modulation412

7.18 Turbo Codes412

7.19 Problems412

8 Speech Coding415

8.1 Introduction415

8.2 Characteristics of Speech Signals417

8.3 Quantization Techniques418

8.3.1 Uniform Quantization418

8.3.2 Nonuniform Quantization419

8.3.3 Adaptive Quantization421

8.3.4 Vector Quantization422

8.4 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation（ADPCM）423

8.5 Frequency Domain Coding of Speech425

8.5.1 Sub-band Coding425

8.5.2 Adaptive Transform Coding428

8.6 Vocoders429

8.6.1 Channel Vocoders429

8.6.2 Formant Vocoders430

8.6.3 Cepstrum Vocoders430

8.6.4 Voice-Excited Vocoder431

8.7 Linear Predictive Coders431

8.7.1 LPC Vocoders431

8.7.2 Multipulse Excited LPC434

8.7.3 Code-Excited LPC434

8.7.4 Residual Excited LPC436

8.8 Choosing Speech Codecs for Mobile Communications436

8.9 The GSM Codec440

8.10 The USDC Codec442

8.11 Performance Evaluation of Speech Coders442

8.12 Problems445

9 Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications447

9.1 Introduction447

9.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access448

9.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access （FDMA）449

9.3 Time Division Multiple Access （TDMA）453

9.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access456

9.4.1 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access （FHMA）457

9.4.2 Code Division Multiple Access （CDMA）458

9.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques459

9.5 Space Division Multiple Access （SDMA）461

9.6 Packet Radio462

9.6.1 Packet Radio Protocols463

9.6.1.1 Pure ALOHA464

9.6.1.2 Slotted ALOHA465

9.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access （CSMA） Protocols466

9.6.3 Reservation Protocols467

9.6.3.1 Reservation ALOHA467

9.6.3.2 Packet Reservation Multiple Access （PRMA）468

9.6.4 Capture Effect in Packet Radio468

9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems469

9.7.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA474

9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells477

9.7.3 Capacity of Space Division Multiple Access484

9.8 Problems488

10 Wireless Networking491

10.1 Introduction to Wireless Networks491

10.2 Differences Between Wireless and Fixed Telephone Networks493

10.2.1 The Public Switched Telephone Network （PSTN）493

10.2.2 Limitations in Wireless Networking495

10.2.3 Merging Wireless Networks and the PSTN496

10.3 Development of Wireless Networks497

10.3.1 First Generation Wireless Networks497

10.3.2 Second Generation Wireless Networks499

10.3.3 Third Generation Wireless Networks500

10.4 Fixed Network Transmission Hierarchy501

10.5 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks502

10.5.1 Circuit Switching503

10.5.2 Packet Switching504

10.5.3 The X.25 Protocol505

10.6 Wireless Data Services506

10.6.1 Cellular Digital Packet Data （CDPD）506

10.6.2 Advanced Radio Data Information Systems （ARDIS）508

10.6.3 RAM Mobile Data（RMD）508

10.7 Common Channel Signaling （CCS）510

10.7.1 The Distributed Central Switching Office for CCS510

10.8 Integrated Services Digital Network （ISDN）512

10.8.1 Broadband ISDN and ATM513

10.9 Signaling System No.7（SS7）514

10.9.1 Network Services Part（NSP） of SS7515

10.9.1.1 Message Transfer Part（MTP） of SS7516

10.9.1.2 Signaling Connection Control Part（SCCP） of SS7517

10.9.2 The SS7 User Part517

10.9.2.1 Integrated Services Digital Network User Part （ISUP）517

10.9.2.2 Transaction Capabilities Application Part （TCAP）518

10.9.2.3 Operation Maintenance and Administration Part （OMAP）518

10.9.3 Signaling Traffic in SS7518

10.9.4 SS7 Services519

10.9.5 Performance of SS7519

10.10 An Example of SS7—Global Cellular Network Interoperability520

10.11 Personal Communication Services/Networks（PCS/PCNs）522

10.11.1 Packet vs& Circuit Switching for PCN523

10.11.2 Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture523

10.11.2.1 Network Functionality in Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture527

10.12 Protocols for Network Access527

10.12.1 Packet Reservation Multiple Access （PRMA）528

10.13 Network Databases529

10.13.1 Distributed Database for Mobility Management529

10.14 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System （UMTS）530

10.15 Summary531

11 Wireless Systems and Standards533

11.1 AMPS and ETACS533

11.1.1 AMPS and ETACS System Overview534

11.1.2 Call Handling in AMPS and ETACS535

11.1.3 AMPS and ETACS Air Interface537

11.1.4 N-AMPS540

11.2 United States Digital Cellular （IS-54 and IS-136）541

11.2.1 USDC Radio Interface542

11.2.2 United States Digital Cellular Derivatives（IS-94 and IS-136）548

11.3 Global System for Mobile （GSM）549

11.3.1 GSM Services and Features550

11.3.2 GSM System Architecture551

11.3.3 GSM Radio Subsystem553

11.3.4 GSM Channel Types555

11.3.4.1 GSM Traffic Channels （TCHs）555

11.3.4.2 GSM Control Channels （CCH）557

11.3.5 Example of a GSM Call560

11.3.6 Frame Structure for GSM561

11.3.7 Signal Processing in GSM563

11.4 CDMA Digital Cellular Standard （IS-95）567

11.4.1 Frequency and Channel Specifications567

11.4.2 Forward CDMA Channel569

11.4.2.1 Convolutional Encoder and Repetition Circuit569

11.4.2.2 Block Interleaver571

11.4.2.3 Long PN Sequence571

11.4.2.4 Data Scrambler572

11.4.2.5 Power Control Subchannel572

11.4.2.6 Orthogonal Covering573

11.4.2.7 Quadrature Modulation574

11.4.3 Reverse CDMA Channel575

11.4.3.1 Convolutional Encoder and Symbol Repetition576

11.4.3.2 Block Interleaver576

11.4.3.3 Orthogonal Modulation576

11.4.3.4 Variable Data Rate Transmission576

11.4.3.5 Direct Sequence Spreading578

11.4.3.6 Quadrature Modulation580

11.4.4 IS-95 with 14.4 kbps Speech Coder[ANS95]580

11.5 CT2 Standard for Cordless Telephones580

11.5.1 CT2 Services and Features580

11.5.2 The CT2 Standard581

11.6 Digital European Cordless Telephone （DECT）582

11.6.1 Features and Characteristics582

11.6.2 DECT Architecture582

11.6.3 DECT Functional Concept584

11.6.4 DECT Radio Link584

11.7 PACS—Personal Access Communication Systems587

11.7.1 PACS System Architecture587

11.7.2 PACS Radio Interface587

11.8 Pacific Digital Cellular （PDC）590

11.9 Personal Handyphone System （PHS）590

11.10 US PCS and ISM Bands591

11.11 US Wireless Cable Television593

11.12 Summary of Standards Throughout the World594

11.13 Problems597

APPENDICES601

A Trunking Theory601

A.1 Erlang B602

A.1.1 Derivation of Erlang B602

A.2 Erlang C607

A.2.1 Derivation of Erlang C607

B Noise Figure Calculations for Link Budgets611

C Rate Variance Relationships for Shape Factor Theory615

C.1 Rate Variance for Complex Voltage615

C.2 Rate Variance for Power617

C.3 Rate Variance for Envelope617

D Approximate Spatial Autocovariance Function for Shape Factor Theory619

E Gaussian Approximations for Spread Spectrum CDMA621

E.1 The Gaussian Approximation629

E.2 The Improved Gaussian Approximation （IGA）635

E.3 A Simplified Expression for the Improved Gaussian Approximation （SEIGA）637

F ？,erf＆erfc Functions645

F.1 The ？-Function645

F.2 The erf and erfc Functions648

G Mathematical Tables, Functions,and Transforms651

H Abbreviations and Acronyms661

I References675

INDEX693