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1. The Context and Consequences of Theory1

Theory in Social Context3

Theory and Policy: Ideas Have Consequences5

Context, Theory, and Policy: Plan of the Book7

Inventing Criminology: Mainstream Theories8

Social Turmoil and the Rise of Critical Theories10

Criminological Theory in the Conservative Era11

Criminological Theory in the 21st Century12

Conclusion13

2. The Search for the"Criminal Man"15

Spiritualism17

The Classical School: Criminal as Calculator20

The Positivist School: Criminal as Determined22

The Birth of the Positivist School: Lombroso'sTheory of the Criminal Man23

Lombroso's Legacy: The Italian Criminological Tradition25

The Continuing Search for the Individual Roots of Crime29

The Consequence of Theory: Policy Implications33

The Positivist School and the Control of the Biological Criminal33

The Positivist School and Criminal Justice Reform35

Conclusion37

3. Rejecting Individualism: The Chicago School39

The Chicago School of Criminology: Theory in Context40

Shaw and McKay's Theory of Juvenile Delinquency42

Burgess's Concentric Zone Theory42

Disorganization and Delinquency44

Transmission of Criminal Values45

The Empirical Status of Social Disorganization Theory45

Summary46

Sutherland's Theory of Differential Association47

Differential Social Organization47

Differential Association48

Theoretical Applications49

The Chicago School's Criminological Legacy50

Collective Efficacy51

Cultural Deviance Theory53

Akers's Social Learning Theory56

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications58

Change the Individual58

Change the Community58

Conclusion59

4. Crime in American Society: Anomie and Strain Theories61

Merton's Strain Theory63

America as a Criminogenic Society63

Strain Theory in Context67

Status Discontent and Delinquency69

Delinquent Boys69

Delinquency and Opportunity70

The Criminological Legacy of Strain Theory72

Assessing Strain Theory72

Agnew's General Strain Theory74

Crime and the American Dream: Institutional-Anomie Theory78

The Future of Strain Theory82

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications83

Expand Opportunities83

Taming the American Dream85

Conclusion86

5. Society as Insulation: The Origins of Control Theory88

Forerunners of Control Theory90

Durkheim's Anomie Theory90

The Influence of the Chicago School92

Early Control Theories93

Reiss's Theory of Personal and Social Controls94

Nye's Family-Focused Theory of Social Controls95

Reckless's Containment Theory96

The Social Psychology of the Self97

Pushes and Pulls98

Factors in Outer Containment99

Factors in Inner Containment99

Summary101

Sykes and Matza: Neutralization and Drift Theory102

Techniques of Neutralization103

Drift Theory105

Control Theory in Context106

The Context of the 1950s106

The Context of the 1960s107

6. The Complexity of Control: Hirschi's Two Theories and Beyond109

Hirschi's First Theory: Social Bonds and Delinquency110

Hirschi's Forerunners111

Hirschi's Sociological Perspective112

Why Social Control Matters114

The Four Social Bonds115

Assessing Social Bond Theory119

Hirschi's Second Theory: Self-Control and Crime121

Self-Control and Crime121

Assessing Self-Control Theory122

Self-Control and Social Bonds125

Hirschi's Revised Social Control Theory126

The Complexity of Control128

Hagan's Power-Control Theory129

Tittle's Control Balance Theory130

Colvin's Differential Coercion Theory133

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications135

Conclusion137

7. The Irony of State Intervention: Labeling Theory139

The Social Construction of Crime140

Labeling as Criminogenic: Creating Career Criminals143

Early Statements of Labeling Theory143

Labeling as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy145

Assessing Labeling Theory147

Labeling Theory in Context152

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications153

Decriminalization153

Diversion154

Due Process155

Deinstitutionalization156

Extending Labeling Theory156

Braithwaite's Theory of Shaming and Crime157

Sherman's Defiance Theory158

Rose and Clear's Coerced Mobility Theory159

Policy Implications: Restorative Justice and Prisoner Reentry161

Conclusion165

8. Social Power and the Construction of Crime: Conflict Theory166

Forerunners of Conflict Theory167

Marx and Engels: Capitalism and Crime167

Simmel: Forms of Conflict168

Bonger: Capitalism and Crime169

Sutherland and Sellin: Culture Conflict and Crime170

Void: Conflict and Crime171

Theory in Context: The Turmoil of the 1960s172

Varieties of Conflict Theory173

Turk: The Criminalization Process174

Chambliss: Crime, Power, and Legal Process179

Quinney: Social Reality, Capitalism, and Crime185

Conflict Theory and the Causes of Crime192

Consequences of Conflict Theory193

Marxist Approach195

Peacemaking Criminology197

Conclusion198

9. New Directions in Critical Theory199

Modernity and Postmodernity200

Postmodern Criminological Thought: The End of Grand Narratives?202

Looking Back at Early British and European Influences204

Background: The New Criminology204

Theoretical Arguments205

Critique of the New Criminology206

Early Left Realism207

The Theory207

Consequences of New Criminology/Left Realism209

The New Criminology Revisited210

Left Realism Today213

The New European Criminology217

Contributions and Context217

Abolitionism218

Consequences of Abolitionism220

The Inportance of Other Voices: Jock Young220

Cultural Criminology221

Late Modernity and Globalization: Contextual Changes221

Consequences of Cultural Criminology223

Convict Criminology226

Background: Primarily an American Contribution226

Consequences of the "New School of Convict Criminology"227

Conclusion229

10. The Gendering of Criminology: Feminist Theory230

Background231

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes232

Cesare Lombroso233

W. I. Thomas233

Sigmund Freud235

Otto Pollak236

The Emergence of New Questions: Bringing Women In236

The Second Wave: From Women's Emancipation to Patriarchy238

Women's Emancipation and Crime238

Patriarchy and Crime240

Varieties of Feminist Thought240

Early Feminist Perspectives240

Contemporary Feminist Perspectives242

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender242

Masculinities and Crime: Doing Gender247

Gendering Criminology249

Gendered Pathways to Lawbreaking249

Gendered Crime249

Gendered Lives250

Postmodernist Feminism and the Third Wave251

Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives253

Some Implications of Feminist Criminology for Corrections256

Conclusion259

11. Crimes of the Powerful: Theories of White-Collar Crime260

The Discovery of White-Collar Crime: Edwin H. Sutherland264

The Philadelphia Address265

Becoming the Father of White-Collar Crime268

Defining White-Collar Crime270

Explaining White-Collar Crime274

Organizational Culture277

Unethical Cultures277

Oppositional Cultures279

The Normalization of Deviance280

Organizational Strain and Opportunity282

Strain and Anomie283

Criminogenic Opportunities284

Deciding to Offend285

Denying the Guilty Mind286

White-Collar Crime as a Rational Choice288

State-Corporate Crime290

Consequences of White-Collar Crime Theory: Policy Implications291

Conclusion293

12. Bringing Punishment Back In: Conservative Criminology295

Context: The United States of the 1980s and Early 1990s297

The Economic Decline of the United States297

The Persistence of Inequality in the United States298

The Rhetoric of Stability300

The Legacy of the Conservative Political Agenda304

Varieties of Conservative Theory306

Crime and Human Nature: Wilson and Herrnstein307

The Theory307

Assessing Crime and Human Nature309

Crime and The Bell Curve: Herrnstein and Murray311

The Criminal Mind313

Choosing to Be Criminal: Crime Pays315

Crime and Moral Poverty316

Broken Windows: The Tolerance of Public Disorganization319

Consequences of Conservative Theory: Policy Implications322

Conclusion326

13. Choosing Crime in Everyday Life: Routine Activityand Rational Choice Theories328

Routine Activity Theory: Opportunities and Crime329

The Chemistry for Crime: Offenders, Targets, and Guardians332

View of Offenders335

Policy Implications: Reducing Opportunities for Crime336

Rational Choice Theory341

Rational Choice and Crime341

Are Offenders' Choices Rational?343

Perceptual Deterrence Theory346

Conclusion350

14. The Search for the"Criminal Man" Revisited: Biosocial Theories351

Evolutionary Psychology: Darwin Revisited355

Theoretical Diversity355

Assessment356

Neuroscience: Neurological and Biochemical Theories357

Mednick's Biosocial Theory358

Brain Development and Crime359

Biochemical Theories361

Genetics364

Behavior Genetics365

Molecular Genetics365

Epigenetics367

Biological Risk and Protective Factors368

Risk Factors368

Protective Factors371

Environmental Toxins372

The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications374

An Agenda for Research and Policy374

Prevention and Treatment376

The Construction of Crime377

Challenges Ahead380

Conclusion382

15. The Development of Criminals: Life-Course Theories384

Integrated Theories of Crime387

Integrated Theorizing388

Elliott and Colleagues' Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm388

Thornberry's Interactional Theory390

Policy Implications393

Life-Course Criminology: Continuity and Change393

Criminology in Crisis: Gottfredson and Hirschi Revisited394

Patterson's Social-Interactional Developmental Model396

Early-Onset Delinquency396

Late-Onset Delinquency397

Intervening With Families398

Moffitt's Life-Course-Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory398

Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior400

Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Behavior401

Assessing Moffitt's Theory402

Sampson and Laub: Social Bond Theory Revisited403

An Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control404

Assessing Sampson and Laub's Life-Course Theory406

Revising the Age-Graded Theory of Crime407

Rethinking Crime: Cognitive Theories of Desistance409

Maruna's Theory of Redemption Scripts410

Giordano et al.'s Theory of Cognitive Transformation411

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications413

Conclusion415

References417

Photo Credits463

Name Index464

Subject Index475

About the Authors488