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1 Radio Frequency Amplifiers1

Answers to Selected Problems1

Appendices1

Index1

Appendix A Introducing the Impulse Function2

Appendix B Filter Attenuation Curves4

1-1 Impedance Review5

Series Circuit Impedance6

1-2 Series Resonance7

1-3 Circuit Qand Bandwidth8

1-4 Parallel Resonance9

Appendix C Feedback Analysis for a Transconductance Amplifier10

Appendix D Derivation of Frequency Response for PLLs12

Nonideal Parallel Resonant Circuits12

1-5 Small-Signal RF Amplifier Analysis14

Gain in Decibels16

Appendix E Communications Software16

1-6 Small-signal RF Amplifier Design18

1-7 Coupling Tuned Circuits22

Appendix F Abbreviations and Acronyms22

1-8 Nonideal Transformer Coupling25

Transformer Loading28

Measuring the Coupling Coefficient31

1-9 Double-Tuned Circuits31

Introduction35

1-10 Laplace Transforms35

Use of the Table of Transform Pairs39

Circuit Impedance and the Transfer Function40

Problems41

1-11 Computer Analysis45

2 Oscillators54

2-1 Hartley Oscillator Circuit Analysis57

2-2 Colpitts Oscillator60

2-3 Clapp Oscillator63

2-4 Tuned-Input/Tuned-Output Oscillator64

RC Phase-Shift Oscillator65

2-5 Untuned Oscillators65

Wien Bridge Oscillator66

Astable Multivibrator67

2-6 Oscillator Stability and Spectral Purity68

Temperature Stability of Oscillators69

Temperature Coefficient69

2-7 Crystals and Crystal Oscillators70

Improving the Frequency Stability of Oscillators70

Crystal Cuts(Y,AT,and BT)71

Crystal Oscillators72

Equivalent Circuit,Impedance,and Q72

Harmonic Operation75

2-8 Pierce Crystal Oscillator75

Problems76

2-9 Computer Analysis80

3 Signal Spectra83

3-1 Fourier Series and Signal Analysis84

Even and Odd Functions86

Fourier Series:Complex Exponential Form90

Fourier Series of Other Waveforms91

3-2 Fourier Transforms94

3-3 Effect of Filters on Signals97

3-4 Harmonic and Phase Distortion100

Total Harmonic Distortion101

3-5 Nondeterministic Signals101

Problems102

3-6 Computer Analysis105

4 Elements of Noise111

4-1 System Noise Sources112

Thermal Noise112

Shot Noise113

Burst Noise114

Flicker(1/f)Noise114

4-2 Noise Spectral Density and Circuit Calculations115

4-4 System Noise Figure119

4-3 Noise and Feedback119

4-5 Noise Temperature120

4-6 Noise Bandwidth121

4-7 Correlation and Noise123

Problems127

4-8 Computer Analysis129

5 Modulation and Amplitude-Modulation Systems133

5-1 Communications Systems134

5-2 Voice Transmission and Multiplexing135

5-3 Modulation136

Amplitude Modulation136

Modulation Index137

5-4 AM Spectrum and Bandwidth139

5-5 Power in an AM Signal141

5-6 Nonsinusoidal Modulation Signals142

5-7 AM Demodulation144

Diagonal Clipping Distortion146

Negative Peak Clipping147

5-8 AM Receiver Systems148

Superheterodyne Receiver Systems148

5-9 Superheterodyne Receivers for AM149

Choice of IF Frequency and Image Response150

Detector Power Requirement151

5-10 Receiver Gain and Sensitivity151

5-11 Power Level in dBm and dBW152

5-12 AGC and Dynamic Range154

Delayed AGC156

5-13 Receiver Noise157

5-15 Derivation of the Noise Figure Equation158

5-14 Signal-to-Noise Ratio(S/N)158

5-16 Bandwidth Improvement160

5-17 Bandwidth Narrowing163

Problems163

5-18 Computer Analysis166

6 Transmitter Circuits170

6-1 Power Amplifiers171

Triode Vacuum Tube172

Class C Power Amplifier173

Power and Efficiency176

6-2 Neutralization177

6-3 Integrated Circuit,RF Power Amplifiers178

6-4 Impedance-Matching Networks184

Pi-Matching Network187

Transistor and Vacuum-Tube Matching Network Equations190

6-5 AM Modulator Circuits193

Solid-State Modulator193

Vacuum-Tube AM Modulator194

Grid Modulation196

Problems197

6-6 Computer Analysis201

7 Receiver Circuits204

7-1 Low-Noise Amplifiers(LNAs)205

Amplifier Dynamic Range206

Third-Order Intercept Point207

7-2 Mixers208

General Nonlinearity209

Other Frequency Converters211

Switching or Sampling Mixers211

Mixer Circuit Design212

Mixing Modulated Signals216

7-3 Tuning the Standard Broadcast Receiver217

7-4 Filter Requirements for Interference Control and Selectivity219

7-5 Filter Circuit Design225

Determining the Filter Impedance Level228

Low-Pass Filter Component Values229

Bandpass Design230

7-6 IF Amplifiers234

7-7 AGC Circuits240

7-8 The Audio System244

Class B Push-Pull244

7-9 Distortion and Feedback247

Voltage-Sampled Shunt Feedback250

Voltage-Sampled Series Feedback251

Frequency Effects and Stability with Feedback253

Problems258

Appendix 7A:Class A Power Amplifier Design Example263

7-10 Computer Analysis265

8 Sideband Systems283

8-1 Vestigial Sideband284

8-2 Double Sideband/Suppressed Carrier285

8-3 Balanced Modulator286

8-4 Product Detector293

The Sideband-Filter Method294

8-6 Single Sideband/Suppressed Carrier294

The Phase Method of SSB-SC Generation296

Single-Sideband Receiver298

8-7 Frequency-Division Multiplexing in Telephone Systems301

8-8 Quadrature Multiplexing304

Problems308

8-10 Computer Analysis310

9 Frequency and Phase Modulation312

9-1 Frequency Modulation312

Modulation Index313

Sidebands and Spectrum316

Wideband FM318

Information Bandwidth and Power321

9-2 Phase Modulation323

Diode Modulator for PM324

Derivation of Modulator Equations327

Determining the Limits of Linearity330

Wideband PM331

9-3 Advantages of PM over FM332

Demodulation of PM332

9-4 FM Transmitter Circuits333

Voltage-Controlled Oscillators(VCOs)334

Integrated Circuit VCO336

FM from PM342

Reactance Modulator for FM343

Reactance Modulator Sensitivity344

Frequency Multipliers345

9-5 Frequency Stability and AFC346

FM Demodulators351

PLL Demodulator351

9-6 FM Receivers351

Slope Detection/FM Discriminator352

Foster-Seeley Phase-Shift Discriminator354

Ratio Detector357

Quadrature FM Detectors358

IF Amplifiers and Limiters360

9-7 Noise Performance364

Preemphasis for FM366

9-8 Stereo FM367

Problems370

9-9 Computer Analysis374

10 Phase-Locked Loops381

10-1 Loop Components383

The Phase Detector383

Phase Detector Gain385

Digital Phase(Timing)Comparators387

Amplifiers387

Voltage-Controlled Oscillator(VCO)388

10-2 Basic Loop Behavior389

Locking the Loop389

Acquisition389

Locked Loop:The Tracking Mode390

Loop Gain and Static Phase Error390

Hold-In Range391

Frequency Response of Individual Loop Components393

10-3 Loop Frequency Response and Bandwidth393

8-5 Phase Distortion in the Demodulation of Suppressed-Carrier Systems393

PLL System Response395

Closed-Loop Frequency Response and Bandwidth397

10-4 FM and FSK Applications of PLLs399

10-5 Noise400

10-6 Improving Loop Response401

Determining Loop Stability and Dynamic Behavior Using the Bode Plot402

Phase Margin403

Damping and Undamped Natural Frequency405

Rise in Loop Frequency Response407

Switching and Settling Time409

Lead-Lag Compensation410

10-7 Phase-Locked Loop Compensation410

Direct Frequency Synthesizers417

10-8 Frequency Synthesizers417

Phase-Locked Synthesizers419

Translation Loops and Multiple-Loop Synthesizers422

10-9 Coherent Receivers:Phase-Locked Loop,Acquisition,and Pull-In Frequency Range431

Problems434

10-10 Computer Analysis439

11 Pulse and Digital Modulation443

11-1 Sampled Data and the Sampling Theorem444

11-2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation--Natural and Flat-Top Sampling447

Time-Division Multiplexing449

Intersymbol Interference(ISI)451

11-3 Pulse Width and Pulse Position Modulation(PWM ＆ PPM)453

Demodulation454

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)456

11-4 Digital Modulation456

Multiplexing PCM Channels457

Bandwidth Requirements458

Delta Modulation(DM)459

11-5 Quantization Noise466

11-6 Qualitative Comparisons of Pulse and Digital Modulation Systems467

Problems467

11-7 Computer Analysis470

12 Digital Communication Concepts472

12-1 Digital Information473

Coding473

Coding Efficiency474

12-2 Information Transfer Rate474

12-3 Signaling(Baud)Rate475

12-4 System Capacity477

12-5 Bandwidth Considerations480

Minimum Possible Bandwidth480

Digital Transmission Formats483

Pulse Shaping for Minimizing Bandwidth and Pulse Distortion483

12-6 Power in Digital Signals484

12-7 PCM System Analysis486

Resolution and Dynamic Range488

Digitizing/Encoding488

Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio491

Quantization Noise491

Companding492

Digital-to-Analog Converters(DACs)496

12-8 PCM Telephone Circuitry496

Analog-to-Digital(A/D)Converters498

Telephone Dialing Tones—Synthesizing and Decoding502

Codec502

Problems504

12-9 Computer Analysis506

13 Data Communication Techniques516

13-1 Standard Digital Codes517

Codes and Error Control Techniques520

Reed-Solomon Codes522

13-2 Error Detection525

Error Detecting and Correcting527

13-3 Noise and Data Errors532

13-4 Intercomputer Communications535

13-5 Serial-Transmission Interfacing536

UART for Asynchronous Communication537

Cyclic Redundancy Checks538

The 20-mA Loop—Teleprinters540

EIA and CCITT Voltage Interfacing of Computer Devices542

Frequency-Shift Key(FSK)Modems546

13-6 Carrier Systems and Modems546

Modems546

Automatic Retransmission Request(ARQ)547

A Full-Duplex,Two-Wire Line,FSK Modem548

Continuous-Phase FSK and MSK551

13-7 Synchronous Communication Techniques552

Data Networks and Synchronous Transmission Protocols553

Point-to-Point553

Switched Networks—Synchronous Transmissions554

Multipoint Lines554

Packet Switching554

Binary Synchronous Communications(Bisync)557

Synchronous Protocols557

Bit-Oriented Protocols:SDLC,HDLC,and X.25559

13-8 Open System Interconnect and ISDN562

Open System Interconnections(OSI)562

Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN)563

Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM)565

Problems568

13-9 Computer Analysis571

14 Transmission Lines and Waveguides576

14-1 Transmission Lines577

TEM Wave Propagation578

Transients and Reflections579

14-2 Sinusoidal Signals as Traveling Waves585

Sinusoidal Signal Reflections and Standing Waves586

Slotted Line and VSWR588

14-3 The Smith Chart589

14-4 Impedance-Matching Techniques592

14-5 S-Parameters595

14-6 Microstrip Amplifier Design601

Microstrip Design601

14-7 Waveguides608

Waveguide Modes609

Boundary Conditions609

Coupling to Waveguides612

Use of Smith Chart with Waveguide Transmissions613

14-8 Directional Couplers615

Problems617

14-9 Computer Analysis620

15 Antennas and Radiowave Propagation625

15-1 Antenna Radiation626

Polarization627

Radiation Pattern and Power Density628

15-3 Dipole(Hertz)Antenna629

15-2 Received Power and Electric Field Strength629

15-4 Directivity,Gain,and Aperture630

Antenna Gain(dBi)630

15-6 The Grounded Vertical(Marconi)Antenna631

15-5 Beamwidth631

Counterpoise633

15-7 Television Antennas and Arrays633

15-8 The Folded Dipole634

Yagi-Uda635

15-9 Turnstiles,Yagis,and Other Arrays635

Log-Periodic Dipole Array637

15-10 Loop Antennas639

15-11 Parabolic Dish Antennas640

Conical Horn Antennas642

15-12 Wave Propagation Through Space644

Refraction644

Diffraction645

HF Radio Waves645

Long-Distance HF Radio Transmission646

The Ionosphere646

The Skip Zone647

Multipath Distortion648

15-13 Power Loss in Space648

Free-Space Attenuation and Atmospheric Absorption649

Fading and Fade Margin650

Problems651

15-14 Computer Analysis653

16 Basic Television656

16-1 Overview:Studio to Viewer657

16-2 Frequency Allocations658

16-3 TV Cameras659

16-4 The Scan Raster and Synchronizing Signals660

16-5 Video Bandwidth and Resolution662

16-6 Transmitted Video and Audio Signals662

16-7 Black-and-White TV Receivers663

Tuner,Ifs,and Detectors663

Gated AGC663

Video Amplifiers and CRT Bias666

Sync Separator667

Vertical Deflection and Sync668

Horizontal Deflection and CRT High Voltage670

Phase-Locked Horizontal Sync672

16-8 Color Television674

Chroma Signals675

Chroma I and Q Signals676

Color TV Receiver Circuits678

16-9 High-Definition Television681

Video Compression Techniques685

Problems689

17 Digital Radio and Space Communication691

Phase-Shift Key(PSK)693

17-1 Modems and Digital Modulation Techniques693

Demodulator696

Differential PSK697

Beyond Binary698

QPSK699

QPSK Demodulation703

Quadrature Demodulation703

Carrier Recovery705

Bit Timing Recovery706

Modems with Higher than Four-Level PSK and QAM708

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)709

17-2 Noise and Error Rate Performance710

Eb/NO712

Bandwidth Requirements for Digital Radio713

17-3 Space and Frequency Diversity714

17-4 System Gain,Power,and Noise Budgets715

Received Signal Power and System Gain716

System Threshold718

G/T719

Satellite Systems720

17-5 Satellite Access for Global Networking720

Multiple-Access Techniques723

Frequency-Division Multiple Access(FDMA)724

TDMA726

FDMA with DAMA726

CDMA/Spread Spectrum728

17-6 Spread Spectrum Systems730

Direct-Sequence731

Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum735

17-7 Multiple Access Cellular Systems737

Cellular Radio738

Cellular Radio Propagation741

Other Operational Considerations743

Transmission of Digital Signals744

Eb/No and Probability of Data Errors747

17-8 Digital Modulation in Wireless Cellular and Personal Communication Systems749

Intersymbol Interference(ISI)750

Modulator/Demodulator Circuit Impairments752

Minimum-Shift Key Modulation754

π/4-DQPSK756

17-9 RF Receiver and Transmitter System Considerations760

Receivers761

The Front End763

Receiver Sensitivity764

Image-Rejection Mixer766

Local Oscillator Phase Noise768

Reciprocal Mixing770

Intermodulation Distortion and Dynamic Range772

Transmitters774

Modulation Phase/Amplitude Imbalance776

Threshold and Coding Gain779

17-10 RF Integrated Circuits and Transceivers for Digital Communications780

AMPS and TDMA786

Spread Spectrum WLAN793

CDMA Transceiver797

Digital Receiver 2000799

Problems802

8-9 Costas Loop for Suppressed-Carrier Demodulation806

17-11 Computer Analysis806

18 Fiber-Optic Communication811

18-1 The Optical Fiber Communication Link812

18-2 Light813

Critical Angle and Reflections814

18-3 Light Propagation in Glass Fibers814

Numerical Aperture and Reflectance815

Optical Fiber Waveguides816

Bandwidth-Distance Product818

Dispersion and Pulse Spreading819

Maximum Allowable Data Rate821

Fiber Power Losses822

Communication LEDs825

18-4 Transmitter Devices and Circuits825

Injection Lasers826

Direct Modulation Transmitters827

External Modulators829

Fiber Amplifiers and Dispersion-Shifted Fiber830

18-5 Receiver Devices and Circuits831

PIN Photodiodes831

Photodiode Light Detectors831

Receiver Circuits832

Avalanche Photodiodes(APD)832

Fiber Technology834

18-6 Transmission Technology834

Connectors,Splices,and Couplers836

18-7 Fiber-Optic Data-Link Analysis840

Analog Link Analysis840

Bandwidth/Data Rate844

Power Budget846

International Networking847

18-8 Fiber-Optic Communication Applications847

Local Area Networking848

Broadband RF Signals on CATV Fiber-Optic Links852

Problems855

18-9 Computer Analysis859