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PART 11

CHAPTER 1Measurement1

1-1 Measuring Things2

1-2 The International System of Units2

1-3 Changing Units3

1-4 Length4

1-5 Time6

1-6 Mass7

Review ＆ Summary8

Exercises ＆ Problems8

CHAPTER 2Motion Along a Straight Line11

2-1 Motion12

2-2 Position and Displacement12

2-3 Average Velocity and Average Speed13

2-4 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed15

2-5 Acceleration17

2-6 Constant Acceleration：A Special Case19

2-7 Another Look at Constant Acceleration22

2-8 Free-Fall Acceleration23

Review ＆ Summary25

Questions26

Exercises ＆ Problems27

CHAPTER 3Vectors31

3-1 Vectors and Scalars32

3-2 Adding Vectors Geometrically32

3-3 Components of Vectors34

3-4 Unit Vectors37

3-5 Adding Vectors by Components38

3-6 Vectors and the Laws of Physics40

3-7 Multiplying Vectors40

Review ＆ Summary44

Questions45

Exercises ＆ Problems45

CHAPTER 4Motion in Two and Three Dimensions48

4-1 Moving in Two or Three Dimensions49

4-2 Position and Displacement49

4-3 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity51

4-4 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration53

4-5 Projectile Motion54

4-6 Projectile Motion Analyzed56

4-7 Uniform Circular Motion60

4-8 Relative Motion in One Dimension62

4-9 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions63

Review ＆ Summary65

Questions66

Exercises ＆ Problems67

CHAPTER 5Force and Motion—Ⅰ72

5-1 What Causes an Acceleration？73

5-2 Newton’s First Law73

5-3 Force74

5-4 Mass75

5-5 Newton’s Second Law76

5-6 Some Particular Forces80

5-7 Newton’s Third Law84

5-8 Applying Newton’s Laws85

Review ＆ Summary90

Questions91

Exercises ＆ Problems93

CHAPTER 6Force and Motion—Ⅱ98

6-1 Friction99

6-2 Properties of Friction100

6-3 The Drag Force and Terminal Speed104

6-4 Uniform Circular Motion106

Review ＆ Summary110

Questions111

Exercises ＆ Problems112

CHAPTER 7Kinetic Energy and Work116

7-1 Energy117

7-2 Work118

7-3 Work and Kinetic Energy119

7-4 Work Done by a Gravitational Force122

7-5 Work Done by a Spring Force126

7-6 Work Done by a General Variable Force129

7-7 Power131

Review ＆ Summary133

Questions134

Exercises ＆ Problems136

CHAPTER 8Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy139

8-1 Potential Energy140

8-2 Path Independence of Conservative Forces141

8-3 Determining Potential Energy Values143

8-4 Conservation of Mechanical Energy146

8-5 Reading a Potential Energy Curve149

8-6 Work Done on a System by an External Force152

8-7 Conservation of Energy155

Review ＆ Summary158

Questions159

Exercises ＆ Problems160

CHAPTER 9Systems of Particles168

9-1 A Special Point169

9-2 The Center of Mass169

9-3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles173

9-4 Linear Momentum176

9-5 The Linear Momentum of a System of Particles177

9-6 Conservation of Linear Momentum178

9-7 Systems with Varying Mass：A Rocket181

9-8 External Forces and Internal Energy Changes184

Review ＆ Summary186

Questions187

Exercises ＆ Problems188

CHAPTER 10Collisions193

10-1 What is a Collision？194

10-2 impulse and Linear Momentum195

10-3 Momentum and Kinetic Energy in Collisions198

10-4 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension199

10-5 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension202

10-6 Collisions in Two Dimensions205

Review ＆ Summary207

Questions208

Exercises ＆ Problems209

CHAPTER 11Rotation215

11-1 Translation and Rotation216

11-2 The Rotational Variables216

11-3 Are Angular Quantities Vectors？220

11-4 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration221

11-5 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables223

11-6 Kinetic Energy of Rotation225

11-7 Calculating the Rotational Inertia226

11-8 Torque229

11-9 Newton’s Second Law for Rotation230

11-10 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy233

Review ＆ Summary236

Questions238

Exercises ＆ Problems239

CHAPTER 12Rolling，Torque，and Angular Momentum245

12-1 Rolling246

12-2 The Kinetic Energy of Rolling247

12-3 The Forces of Rolling248

12-4 The Yo-Yo250

12-5 Torque Revisited251

12-6 Angular Momentum253

12-7 Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form255

12-8 The Angular Momentum of a System of Particles257

12-9 The Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Fixed Axis258

12-10 Conservation of Angular Momentum260

Review ＆ Summary265

Questions266

Exercises ＆ Problems268

PART 2273

CHAPTER 13Equilibrium and Elasticity273

13-1 Equilibrium274

13-2 The Requirements of Equilibrium275

13-3 The Center of Gravity276

13-4 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium278

13-5 Indeterminate Structures282

13-6 Elasticity283

Review ＆ Summary287

Questions288

Exercises ＆ Problems289

CHAPTER 14Gravitation294

14-1 The World and the Gravitational Force295

14-2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation295

14-3 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposi？on296

14-4 Gravitation Near Earth’s Surface299

14-5 Gravitation Inside Earth301

14-6 Gravitational Potential Energy302

14-7 Planets and Satellites：Kepler’s Laws306

14-8 Satellites：Orbits and Energy310

14-9 Einstein and Gravitation312

Review ＆ Summary314

Questions315

Exercises ＆ Problems316

CHAPTER 15Fluids321

15-1 Fluids and the World Around Us322

15-2 What is a Fiuid？322

15-3 Density and Pressure322

15-4 Fluids at Rest324

15-5 Measuring Pressure327

15-6 Pascal’s Principle328

15-7 Archimedes’ Principle329

15-8 Ideal Fluids in Motion332

15-9 The Equation of Continuity333

15-10 Bernoulli’s Equation336

Review ＆ Summary339

Questions339

Exercises ＆ Problems340

CHAPTER 16Oscillations346

16-1 Oscillations347

16-2 Simple Harmonic Motion347

16-3 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion350

16-4 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion352

16-5 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator354

16-6 Pendulums355

16-7 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion358

16-8 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion360

16-9 Forced Oscillations and Resonance362

Review ＆ Summary363

Questions364

Exercises ＆ Problems365

CHAPTER 17Waves—Ⅰ370

17-1 Waves and Particles371

17-2 Types of Waves371

17-3 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves372

17-4 Wavelength and Frequency373

17-5 The Speed of a Traveling Wave375

17-6 Wave Speed on a Stretched String378

17-7 Energy and Power of a Traveling String Wave380

17-8 The Principle of Superposition for Waves382

17-9 Interference of Waves383

17-10 Phasors386

17-11 Standing Waves387

17-12 Standing Waves and Resonance389

Review ＆ Summary392

Questions392

Exercises ＆ Problems394

CHAPTER 18Waves—Ⅱ398

18-1 Sound Waves399

18-2 The Speed of Sound399

18-3 Traveling Sound Waves402

18-4 interference404

18-5 Intensity and Sound Level406

18-6 Sources of Musical Sound410

18-7 Beats412

18-8 The Doppler Effect414

18-9 Supersonic Speeds：Shock Waves418

Review ＆ Summary419

Questions420

Exercises ＆ Problems421

CHAPTER 19Temperature，Heat，and the First Law of Thermodynamics425

19-1 Thermodynamics426

19-2 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics426

19-3 Measuring Temperature427

19-4 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales429

19-5 Thermal Expansion431

19-6 Temperature and Heat433

19-7 The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids434

19-8 A Closer Look at Heat and Work438

19-9 The First Law of Thermodynamics440

19-10 Some Special Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics441

19-11 Heat Transfer Mechanisms443

Review ＆ Summary447

Questions448

Exercises ＆ Problems449

CHAPTER 20 The Kinetic Theory of Gases454

20-1 A New Way to Look at Gases455

20-2 Avogadro’s Number455

20-3 Ideal Gases456

20-4 Pressure，Temperature，and RMS Speed459

20-5 Translational Kinetic Energy461

20-6 Mean Free Path462

20-7 The Distribution of Molecular Speeds464

20-8 The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas467

20-9 Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific Heats471

20-10 A Hint of Quantum Theory472

20-11 The Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas473

Review ＆ Summary476

Questions477

Exercises ＆ Problems478

CHAPTER 21Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics482

21-1 Some One-Way Processes483

21-2 Change in Entropy483

21-3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics488

21-4 Entropy in the Real World：Engines489

21-5 Entropy in the Real World：Refrigerators494

21-6 The Efficiencies of Real Engines495

21-7 A Statistical View of Entropy496

Review ＆ Summary500

Questions501

Exercises ＆ Problems501

PART3505

CHAPTER 22Electric Charge505

22-1 Electromagnetism506

22-2 Electric Charge506

22-3 Conductors and Insulators507

22-4 Coulomb’s Law509

22-5 Charge Is Quantized514

22-6 Charge Is Conserved515

Review ＆ Summary516

Questions517

Exercises ＆ Problems518

CHAPTER 23 Electric Fields520

23-1 Charges and Forces：A Closer Look521

23-2 The Electric Field521

23-3 Electric Field Lines522

23-4 The Electric Field Due to a Point Charge524

23-5 The Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole526

23-6 The Electric Field Due to a Line of Charge527

23-7 The Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk531

23-8 A Point Charge in an Electric Field532

23-9 A Dipole in an Electric Field535

Review ＆ Summary537

Questions538

Exercises ＆ Problems539

CHAPTER 24 Gauss’ Law543

24-1 A New Look at Coulomb’s Law544

24-2 Flux544

24-3 Flux of an Electric Field545

24-4 Gauss’ Law547

24-5 Gauss’ Law and Coulomb’s Law549

24-6 A Charged Isolated Conductor550

24-7 Applying Gauss’ Law：Cyunndrical Symmetry553

24-8 Applying Gauss’ Law：Planar Symmetry554

24-9 Applying Gauss’ Law：Spherical Symmetry557

Review ＆ Summary558

Questions559

Exercises ＆ Problems559

CHAPTER 25 Electric Potential564

25-1 Electric Potential Energy565

25-2 Electric Potential566

25-3 Equipotential Surfaces568

25-4 Calculating the Potential from the Field569

25-5 Potential Due to a Point Charge571

25-6 Potential Due to a Group of Point Charges573

25-7 Potential Due to an Electric Dipole574

25-8 Potential Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution575

25-9 Calculating the Field from the Potential577

25-10 Electric Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges579

25-11 Potential of a Charged Isolated Conductor580

Review ＆ Summary582

Questions583

Exercises ＆ Problems584

CHAPTER 26 Capacitance588

26-1 The Uses of Capacitors589

26-2 Capacitance589

26-3 Calculating the Capacitance591

26-4 Capacitors in Parallel and in Series594

26-5 Energy Stored in an Electric Field598

26-6 Capacitor with a Dielectric600

26-7 Dielectrics：An Atomic View603

26-8 Dielectrics and Gauss’ Law604

Review ＆ Summary606

Questions607

Exercises ＆ Problems608

CHAPTER 27 Current and Resistance611

27-1 Moving Charges and Electric Currents612

27-2 Electric Current612

27-3 Current Density614

27-4 Resistance and Resistivity617

27-5 Ohm’s Law621

27-6 A Microscopic view of Ohm’s Law622

27-7 Power in Electric Circuits624

27-8 Semiconductors626

27-9 Superconductors627

Review ＆ Summary628

Questions629

Exercises ＆ Problems630

CHAPTER 28 Circuits633

28-1 “Pumping” Charges634

28-2 Work，Energy，and Emf634

28-3 Calculating the Current in a Single-Loop Circuit636

28-4 Other Single-Loop Circuits638

28-5 Potential Differences639

28-6 Multiloop Circuits642

28-7 The Ammeter and the Voltmeter647

28-8 RC Circuits648

Review ＆ Summary651

Questions652

Exercises ＆ Problems653

CHAPTER 29 Magnetic Fields658

29-1 The Magnetic Field659

29-2 The Definition of B659

29-3 Crossed Fields：Discovery of the Electron663

29-4 Crossed Fields：The Hall Effect665

29-5 A Circulating Charged Particle667

29-6 Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons671

29-7 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire673

29-8 Torque on a Current Loop676

29-9 The Magnetic Dipole Moment678

Review ＆ Summary679

Questions680

Exercises ＆ Problems682

CHAPTER30 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents686

30-1 Calculating the Magnetic Field Due to a Current687

30-2 Force Between Two Parallel Currents693

30-3 Ampere’s Law694

30-4 Solenoids and Toroids698

30-5 A Current-Carrying Coil as a Magnetic Dipole700

Review ＆ Summary703

Questions703

Exercises ＆ Problems705

CHAPTER 31 Induction and Inductance710

31-1 Two Symmetric Situations711

31-2 Two Experiments711

31-3 Faraday’s Law of Induction712

31-4 Lenz’s Law714

31-5 Induction and Energy Transfers718

31-6 Induced Electric Fields720

31-7 Inductors and Inductance724

31-8 Self-Induction725

31-9 RL Circuits727

31-10 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field730

31-11 Energy Density of a Magnetic Field731

31-12 Mutual Induction733

Review ＆ Summary736

Questions737

Exercises ＆ Problems738

CHAPTER 32 Magnetism of Matter； Maxwell’s Equations744

32-1 Magnets745

32-2 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields745

32-3 The Magnetism of Earth746

32-4 Magnetism and Electrons747

32-5 Magnetic Materials751

32-6 Diamagnetism752

32-7 Paramagnetism753

32-8 Ferromagnetism755

32-9 Induced Magnetic Fields758

32-10 Displacement Current760

32-11 Maxwell’s Equations762

Review ＆ Summary763

Questions764

Exercises ＆ Problems765

CHAPTER 33Electromagnetic Oscillations and Alternating Current768

33-1 New Physics—Old Mathematics769

33-2 LC Oscillations，Qualitatively769

33-3 The Electrical-Mechanical Analogy772

33-4 LC Oscillations，Quantitatively773

33-5 Damped Oscillations in an RLC Circuit776

33-6 Alternating Current778

33-7 Forced oscillations779

33-8 Three Simple Circuits779

33-9 The Series RLC Circuit785

33-10 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits789

33-11 Transformers791

Review ＆ Summary795

Questions796

Exercises ＆ Problems797

PART 4801

CHAPTER 34 Electromagnetic Waves801

34-1 Maxwell’s Rainbow802

34-2 The Traveling Electromagnetic Wave，Qualitatively803

34-3 The Traveling Electromagnetic Wave，Quantitatively806

34-4 Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector809

34-5 Radiation Pressure812

34-6 Polarization814

34-7 Reflection and Refraction818

34-8 Total Internal Reflection823

34-9 Polarization by Reflection824

Review ＆ Summary825

Questions826

Exercises ＆ Problems827

CHAPTER 35 Images833

35-1 Two Types of Images834

35-2 Plane Mirrors835

35-3 Spherical Mirrors837

35-4 Images from Spherical Mirrors838

35-5 Spherical Refracting Surfaces841

35-6 Thin Lenses843

35-7 Optical Instruments849

35-8 Three Proofs852

Review ＆ Summary855

Questions856

Exercises ＆ Problems857

CHAPTER 36 Interference861

36-1 Interference862

36-2 Light as a Wave862

36-3 Diffraction866

36-4 Young’s Interference Experiment866

36-5 Coherence870

36-6 Intensity in Double-Slit Interference871

36-7 interference from Thin Films874

36-8 Michelson’s Interferometer880

Review ＆ Summary882

Questions882

Exercises ＆ Problems884

CHAPTER 37 Diffraction890

37-1 Diffraction and the Wave Theory of Light891

37-2 Diffraction by a Single Slit：Locating the Minima892

37-3 Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction，Qualitatively894

37-4 Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction，Quantitatively896

37-5 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture898

37-6 Diffraction by a Double Slit901

37-7 Diffraction Gratings903

37-8 Gratings：Dispersion and Resolving Power907

37-9 X-ray Diffraction909

Review ＆ Summary912

Questions912

Exercises ＆ Problems913

CHAPTER 38 Relativity919

38-1 What is Relativity All About？920

38-2 The Postulates921

38-3 Measuring an Event922

38-4 The Relativity of Simultaneity923

38-5 The Relativity of Time925

38-6 The Relativity of Length929

38-7 The Lorentz Transformation932

38-8 Some Consequences of the Lorentz Equations934

38-9 The Relativity of velocities936

38-10 The Doppler Effect for Light936

38-11 A New Look at Momentum940

38-12 A New Look at Energy941

Review ＆ Summary946

Questions947

Exercises ＆ Problems948

PART5953

CHAPTER 39 Photons and Matter Waves953

39-1 A New Direction954

39-2 The Photon，the Quantum of Light954

39-3 The Photoelectric Effect956

39-4 Photons Have Momentum959

39-5 Light as a Probability Wave962

39-6 Electrons and Matter Waves964

39-7 Schrodinger’s Equation967

39-8 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle970

39-9 Barrier Tunneling971

Review ＆ Summary973

Questions974

Exercises ＆ Problems975

CHAPTER 40 More About Matter Waves979

40-1 Atom Building980

40-2 Waves on Strings and Matter Waves980

40-3 Energies of a Trapped Electron981

40-4 Wave Functions of a Trapped Electron985

40-5 An Electron in a Finite Well988

40-6 More Electron Traps990

40-7 Two-and Three-Dimensional Electron Traps991

40-8 The Hydrogen Atom993

Review ＆ Summary1001

Questions1002

Exercises ＆ Problems1003

CHAPTER 41 All About Atoms1006

41-1 Atoms and the World Around Us1007

41-2 Some Properties of Atoms1007

41-3 Electron Spin1009

41-4 Angular Momenta and Magnetic Dipole Moments1010

41-5 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment1013

41-6 Magnetic Resonance1015

41-7 The Pauli Exclusion Principle1017

41-8 Multiple Electrons in Rectangular Traps1017

41-9 Building the Periodic Table1020

41-10 X Rays and the Numbering of the Elements1022

41-11 Lasers and Laser Light1026

41-12 How Lasers Work1027

Review ＆ Summary1030

Questions1031

Exercises ＆ Problems1032

CHAPTER 42 Conduction of Electricity in Solids1037

42-1 Solids1038

42-2 The Electrical Properties of Solids1038

42-3 Energy Levels in a Crystalline Solid1039

42-4 Insulators1040

42-5 Metals1040

42-6 Semiconductors1046

42-7 Doped Semiconductors1047

42-8 The p-n Junction1050

42-9 The Junction Rectifier1052

42-10 The Light-Emitting Diode（LED）1053

42-11 The Transistor1055

Review ＆ Summary1056

Questions1057

Exercises ＆ Problems1058

CHAPTER 43 Nuclear Physics1062

43-1 Discovering the Nucleus1063

43-2 Some Nuclear Properties1065

43-3 Radioactive Decay1070

43-4 Alpha Decay1074

43-5 Beta Decay1076

43-6 Radioactive Dating1079

43-7 Measuring Radiation Dosage1080

43-8 Nuclear Models1081

Review ＆ Summary1083

Questions1084

Exercises ＆ Problems1085

CHAPTER 44 Energy from the Nucleus1092

44-1 The Atom and Its Nucleus1093

44-2 Nuclear Fission：The Basic Process1093

44-3 A Model for Nuclear Fission1096

44-4 The Nuclear Reactor1098

44-5 A Natural Nuclear Reactor1102

44-6 Thermonuclear Fusion：The Basic Process1104

44-7 Thermonuclear Fusion in the Sun and Other Stars1106

44-8 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion1108

Review ＆ Summary1111

Questions1111

Exercises ＆ Problems1112

CHAPTER 45 Quarks，Leptons，and the Big Bang1116

45-1 Life at the Cutting Edge1117

45-2 Particles，Particles，Particles1117

45-3 An Interlude1120

45-4 The Leptons1123

45-5 The Hadrons1125

45-6 Still Another Conservation Law1127

45-7 The Eightfold Way1128

45-8 The Quark Model1129

45-9 The Basic Forces and Messenger Particles1132

45-10 A Pause for Reflection1134

45-11 The Universe Is Expanding1134

45-12 The Cosmic Background Radiation1135

45-13 Dark Matter1136

45-14 The Big Bang1137

45-15 A Summing Up1138

Review ＆ Summary1138

Questions1139

Exercises ＆ Problems1139

APPENDICES1145

A.The International System of Units（SI）1145

B.Some Fundamental Constants of Physics1147

C.Some Astronomical Data1148

D.Conversion Factors1149

E.Mathematical Formulas1153

F.Properties of the Elements1156

G.Periodic Table of the Elements1159

ANSWERS TO CHECKPOINTS AND ODD-NUMBERED QUESTIONS，EXERCISES，AND PROBLEMS1161

INDEX1175